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.-vi* 


Cyclopedia 


of 


Architecture,  Carpentry, 
and  Building 


A   General  Reference    Work 

ON   ARCHITECTURE,   CARPENTRY,    BUILDING,    SUPERINTENDENCE,    CONTRACTS, 
SPECIFICATIONS,    BUILDING    LAW,     STAIR-BUILDING,     ESTIMATING, 
MASONRY,   REINFORCED  CONCRETE,  STRUCTURAL  ENGINEER- 
ING,    ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING,     SHEET    METAL 
WORK,    HEATING,    VENTILATING,    ETC. 


Prepared  by  a  Staff  of 

ARCHITECTS,    BUILDERS,    ENGINEERS,    AND    EXPERTS   OF    THE    HIGHEST 
PROFESSIONAL    STANDING 


Illustrated  with  over  Three  Thousand  Engravings 


TEN    VOLUMES 


CHICAGO 

AMERICAN  TECHNICAL  SOCIETY 

1914 


BOSTON  COi-J-EGE  \^ 
PHYSICS  DEPT. 


COFYRiGHT.  1907. 1909. 1912 

BY 

AMERICAN  SCHOOL  OF  CORRESPONDENCE 
Copyright.  1907. 1909. 1912 

BY 

AMERICAN  TECHNICAL  SOCIETY 


Entered  at  Stationers'  Hall.  London 
All  Rights  Reserved 


Authors  and  Collaborators 


JAMES  C.  PLANT 

Superintendent  of  Computing  Division,   Office    of    Supervising    Architect,    Treasury, 
Washington,  D.  C. 


WALTER  LORING  WEBB,  C,  E. 

Consulting  Civil  Engineer 

Author  of  "Railroad  Construction,"  "Economics  of  Railroad  Construction,"  etc. 

J.  R.  COOLIDGE,  Jr.,  A.  M. 

Architect,  Boston 

President,  Boston  Society  of  Architects 

Acting  Director,  Museum  of  Fine  Arts,  Boston 

H.  V.  VON  HOLST,  A.  B.,  S.  B. 

Architect,  Chicago 

President,  Chicago  Architectural  Club 

*^ 

FRED  T.  HODGSON 

Architect  and  Editor 

Member,  Ontario  Association  of  Architects 

Author  of  "Modern  Carpentry,"  "Architectural  Drawing,  Self -Taught,"  "The  Steel 
Square,"  "Modern  Estimator,"  etc. 

GLENN  M.  HOBBS,  Ph.  D. 

Secretary,  American  School  of  Correspondence 

FRANK  0.  DUFOUR,  C.  E. 

Assistant  Professor  of  Structural  Engineering,  University  of  Illinois 
American  Society  of  Civil  Engineers 

SIDNEY  T.  STRICKLAND,  S.  B. 

Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology 
Ecole  des  Beaux  Arts,  Paris 

WM.  H.  LAWRENCE,  S.  B. 

Professor  of  Architectural  Engineering,  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology 


Authors  and  Collaborators— Continued 


EDWARD  NICHOLS 

Architect,  Boston 

V» 

H.  W.  GARDNER,  S.  B. 

Associate  Professor  of  Architecture,  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology 

^« 

JESSIE  M.  SHEPHERD,  A.  B. 

Associate  Editor,  Textbook  Department,  American  School  of  Correspondence 


GEORGE  C.  SHAAD,  E.  E. 

Professor  of  Electrical  Engineering,  University  of  Kansas 


MORRIS  WILLIAMS 

Writer  and  Expert  on  Carpentry  and  Building 


HERBERT  E.  EVERETT 

Professor  of  the  History  of  Art,  University  of  Pennsylvania 

^* 

ERNEST  L.  WALLACE,  B.  S. 

Assistant  Examiner,  United  States  Patent  Office,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Formerly  Instructor  in  Electrical  Engineering,  American  School  of  Correspondence 


OTIS  W.  RICHARDSON,  LL.  B. 

Of  the  Boston  Bar 

WM,  G.  SNOW,  S.  B. 

steam  Heating  Specialist 

Author  of  "Furnace  Heating,"  Joint  Author  of  "Ventilation  of  Buildings" 

American  Society  of  Mechanical  Engineers 


W.  HERBERT  GIBSON,  B.  S.,  C.  E. 

Civil  Engineer  and  Designer  of  Reinforced  Concrete 

ELIOT  N.  JONES,  LL.  B. 

Of  the  Boston  Bar 


Authors  and  Collaborators — Continued 


R.  T.  MILLER,  Jr.,  A.  M.,  LL.  B. 

President,  American  School  of  Correspondence 

^« 

WM.  NEUBECKER 

Instructor,  Sheet  Metal  Department  of  New  York  Trade  School 


WM.  BEALL  GRAY 

Sanitary  Engineer 

Member,  National  Association  of  Master  Plumbers 


EDWARD  MAURER,  B.  C.  E. 

Professor  of  Mechanics,  University  of  Wisconsin 

EDWARD  A.  TUCKER,  S.  B. 

Architectural  Engineer 

Member,  American  Society  of  Civil  Engineers 


EDWARD  B.  WAITE 

Head  of  Instruction  Department,  American  School  of  Correspondence 
American  Society  of  Mechanical  Engineers 
Western  Society  of  Engineers 

^* 

ALVAH  HORTON  SABIN,  M.  S. 

Lecturer  in  New  York  University 

Author  of  "Technology  of  Paint  and  Varnish,"  etc. 

American  Society  of  Mechanical  Engineers 


GEORGE  R.  METCALFE,  M.  E. 

Editor,  American  Institute  of  Electrical  Engineers 

Formerly  Head,  Technical  Publication  Department,  Westinghouse  Electric  &  Manufac- 
turing Co. 

^« 

HENRY  M.  HYDE 

Editor  "Technical  World  Magazine" 

^* 

CHAS.  L.  HUBBARD,  S.  B.,  M.  E. 

Consulting  Engineer  on  Heating,  Ventilating,  Lighting,  and  Power 
Formerly  with  S.  Homer  Woodbridge  Co. 


Authors  and  Collaborators— Continued 


FRANK  CHOUTEAU  BROWN 

Architect,  Boston 

Author  of  "  Letters  and  Lettering" 

DAVID  A.  GREGG 

Teacher  and  Lecturer  in  Pen  and  Ink  Rendering,  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology 


CHAS.  B.  BALL 

Chief  Sanitary  Inspector,  City  of  Chicago 
American  Society  of  Civil  Engineers 


ERVIN  KENISON,  S.  B. 

Assistant  Professor  of  Mechanical  Drawing,  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology 


CHAS.  E.  KNOX,  E.  E. 

Consulting  Electrical  Engineer 

American  Institute  of  Electrical  Engineers 


JOHN  H.  JALLINGS 

Mechanical  Engineer 


FRANK  A.  BOURNE,  S.  M.,  A.  A.  I.  A. 

Architect,  Boston 

Special  Librarian,  Department  of  Fine  Arts,  Public  Library   Boston 


ALFRED  S.  JOHNSON,  Ph.  D. 

Formerly  Editor  "Technical  World  Magazine" 


GILBERT  TOWNSEND,  S.  B. 

With  Ross  &  McFarlane,  Montreal 


HARRIS  C.  TROW,  S.  B.,  Managing  Editor 

Editor-in-Chief,  Textbook  Department,  American  School  of  Correspondence 


Authorities  Consulted 


THE  editors  have  freely  consulted  the  standard  technical  literature 
of  America  and  Europe  in  the  preparation  of  these  volumes.  They 
desire  to  express  their  indebtedness  particularly  to  the  following 
eminent  authorities  whose  well-known  works  should  be  in  the  library  of 
everyone  connected  with  building. 

Grateful  acknowledgment  is  here  made  also  for  the  invaluable  co- 
operation of  the  foremost  architects,  engineers,  and  builders  in  making 
these  volumes  thoroughly  representative  of  the  very  best  and  latest  prac- 
tice in  the  design  and  construction  of  buildings ;  also  for  the  valuable 
drawings  and  data,  suggestions,  criticisms,  and  other  courtesies. 


J.  B.  JOHNSON,  C.  E. 

Formerly  Dean,  College  of  Mechanics  and  Engineering,  University  of  Wisconsin 
Author  of  "Engineering  Contracts  and  Specifications,"  "Materials  of  Construction," 
Joint  Author  of  "Theory  and  Practice  [in  the  Designing  of  Modern  Framed  Struc- 
tures" 

^* 

JOHN  CASSAN  WAIT,  M.  C.  E.,  LL.  B. 

Counselor-at-Law  and  Consulting  Engineer;  Formerly  Assistant  Professor  of  Engineer- 
ing at  Harvard  University 
Author  of  "Engineering  and  Architectural  Jurisprudence" 


T.  M.  CLARE 

Fellow  of  the  American  Institute  of  Architects 

Author  of  "Building    Superintendence,"  "Architect,   Builder,    and  Owner  before  the 
Law" 

FRANK  E.  KIDDER,  C.  E.,  Ph.  D. 

Consulting  Architect  and  Structural  Engineer;   Fellow  of  the  American  Institute  of 

Architects 
Author   of    "Architects'    and    Builders'    Pocket-Pook;"    "Building  Construction    and 

Superintendence;   Part  I,   Masons'    Work;    Part  II,   Carpenters'   Work;   Part  III, 

Trussed  Roofs  and  Roof  Trusses;  "  "Churches  and  Chapels" 


AUSTIN  T.  BYRNE,  C.  E. 

Civil  Engineer 

Author  of    "Inspection  of  Materials  and  Workmanship  Employed  in  Construction,' 
"Highway  Construction" 


W.  R.  WARE 


Formerly  Professor  of  Architecture,  Columbia  University 
Author  of  "Modern  Perspective" 


Authorities  Consulted— Continued 


CLARENCE  A.  MARTIN 

Professor  of  Architecture  at  Cornell  University 
Author  of  "Details  of  Building  Construction" 


FRANK  N.  SNYDER 

Architect 

Author  of  "Building  Details" 


CHARLES  H.  SNOW 

Author  of  "The  Principal  Species  of  Wood,  Their  Characteristic  Properties" 

OWEN  B.  MAGINNIS  ^ 

Author  of  "How  to  Frame  a  House,  or  House  and  Roof  Framing  ' 

HALBERT  P.  GILLETTE,  C.  E.       ^ 

Author  of  "Handbook  of  Cost  Data  for  Contractors  and  Engineers" 

OLIVER  COLEMAN  ^ 

Author  of  "Successful  Houses" 

CHAS.  E.  GREENE,  A.  M.,  C.  E. 

Formerly  Professor  of  Civil  Engineering,  University  of  Michigan 
Author  of  "Structural  Mechanics" 

LOUIS  de  C.  BERG  "^ 

Author  of  "Safe  Building" 

*^ 

GAETANO  LANZA,  S.  B.,  C.  &  M.  E. 

Professor  of  Theoretical  and  Applied  Mechanics,  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology 
Author  of  "Applied  Mechanics" 

IRA  O.  BAKER  ^ 

Professor  of  Civil  Engineering,  University  of  Illinois 
Author  of  "A  Treatise  on  Masonry  Construction" 

^• 

GEORGE  P.  MERRILL 

Author  of  "Stones  for  Building  and  Decoration" 

FREDERICK  W.TAYLOR,  M.  E.,  and  SANFORD  E.THOMPSON,  S.  B.,  C.E. 

Joint  Authors  of  "A  Treatise  on  Concrete,  Plain  and  Reinforced" 


Authorities  Consulted— Continued 


A,  W.  BUEL  and  C.  S.  HILL 

Joint  Authors  of  "Reinforced  Concrete" 


NEWTON  HARRISON,  E.  E. 

Author  of  "  Electric  Wiring,  Diagrams  and  Switchboards" 

FRANCIS  B.  CROCKER,  E.  M.,  Ph.  D. 

Head  of  Department  of  Electrical  Engineering,  Columbia  University;   Past  President, 

American  Institute  of  Electrical  Engineers 
Author  of  "  Electric  Lighting" 

*^ 

J.  R.  CRAVATH  and  V.  R.  LANSINGH 

Joint  Authors  of  "Practical  Illumination" 

JOSEPH  KENDALL  FREITAG,  B.  S.,  C.  E. 

Authors  of  "Architectural  Engineering,"  "  Fireproofing  of  Steel  Buildings" 

WILLIAM  H.  BIRKMIRE,  C.  E. 

Author  of  "Planning  and  Construction  of  High  Office  Buildings,"  "Architectural  Iron 
and  Steel,  and  Its  Application  in  the  Construction  of  Buildings,"  "Compound 
Riveted  Girders,"  "Skeleton  Structures,"  etc. 


EVERETT  U.  CROSBY  and  HENRY  A.  FISKE 

Joint  Authors  of  "Handbook  of  Fire  Protection  for  Improved  Risk" 

CARNEGIE   STEEL  COMPANY 

Authors  of  "  Pocket  Companion,  Containing  Useful  Information  and  Tables  Appertain- 
ing to  the  Use  of  Steel" 

^• 

J.  C.  TRAUTWINE,  C.  E. 

Author  of  "Civil  Engineer's  Pocket-Book" 

*/» 

ALPHA  PIERCE  JAMISON,  M.  E. 

Assistant  Professor  of  Mechanical  Drawing,  Purdue  University 
Author  of  "Advanced  Mechanical  Drawing" 

^« 

FRANK  CHOUTEAU   BROWN 

Architect,  Boston 

Author  of  "  Letters  and  Lettering" 


Authorities  Consulted— Continued 


HENRY  McGOODWIN 

Author  of  "Architectural  Shades  and  Shadows" 

^* 

VIGNOLA 

Author  of  "The  Five  Orders  of  Architecture,"  American  Edition  by  Prof.  Ware 

^* 

CHAS.  D.  MAGINNIS 

Author  of  "Pen  Drawing,  An  Illustrated  Treatise" 


FRANZ  S.  MEYER 

Professor  in  the  School  of  Industrial  Art,  Karlsruhe 
Author  of  "  Handbook  of  Ornament,"  American  Edition 

*»• 

RUSSELL  STURGIS 

Author  of  "A  Dictionary  of  Architecture  and  Building,"  and  "How  to  Judge  Archi- 
tecture" 


A.  D.  F.  HAMLIN,  A.  M. 

Professor  of  Architecture  at  Columbia  University 
Author  of  "A  Textbook  of  the  History  of  Architecture 


RALPH  ADAMS  CRAM 

Architect 

Author  of  "Church  Building" 

C.  H.  MOORE 

Author  of  "Development  and  Character  of  Gothic  Architecture" 


ROLLA  C.  CARPENTER,  C.  E.,  M.  M.  E. 

Professor  of  Experimental  Engineering,  Cornell  University 
Author  of  "Heating  and  Ventilating  Buildings" 


WILLIAM   PAUL  GERHARD 

Author  of  "A  Guide  to  Sanitary  House  Inspection" 

•>• 

I.  J.  COSGROVE 

Author  of  "  Principles  and  Practice  of  Plumbing" 


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SUMMER  COTTAGE  FOR  THE  MISSES  DUMMER,  AT  HARBOR  POINT,  MICH. 

Pond  &  Pond,  Architects,  Chicago. 
Built  in  1903.    Cost,  $7,300.    Plans  and  Interior  are  Shown  on  Pages  86  and  90. 


Fore^word 


HE  rapid  evolution  of  constructive  methods  in  recent 
,  years,  as  illustrated  in  the  use  of  steel  and  concrete, 
^;  and  the  increased  size  and  complexity  of  buildings, 
has  created  the  necessity  for  an  authority  which  shall 
embody  accumulated  experience  and  approved  practice  along  a 
variety  of  correlated  lines.  The  Cyclopedia  of  Architecture, 
Carpentry,  and  Building  is  designed  to  fill  this  acknowledged 
need. 

C  There  is  no  industry  that  compares  with  Building  in  the 
close  interdependence  of  its  subsidiary  trades.  The  Architect, 
for  example,  who  knows  nothing  of  Steel  or  Concrete  con- 
struction is  today  as  much  out  of  place  on  important  work 
as  the  Contractor  who  cannot  make  intelligent  estimates,  or  who 
understands  nothing  of  his  legal  rights  and  responsibilities.  A 
carpenter  must  now  know  something  of  Masonry,  Electric  Wiring, 
and,  in  fact,  all  other  trades  employed  in  the  erection  of  a  build- 
ing; and  the  same  is  true  of  all  the  craftsmen  whose  handiwork 
will  enter  into  the  completed  structure. 

C  Neither  pains  nor  expense  have  been  spared  to  make  the 
present  work  the  most  comprehensive  and  authoritative  on  the 
subject  of  Building  and  its  allied  industries.  The  aim  has  been, 
not  merely  to  create  a  work  which  will  appeal  to  the  trained 


expert,  but  one  that  will  commend  itself  also  to  the  beginner 
and  the  self-taught,  practical  man  by  giving  him  a  working 
knowledge  of  the  principles  and  methods,  not  only  of  his  own 
particular  trade,  but  of  all  other  branches  of  the  Building  Indus- 
try as  well.  The  various  sections  have  been  prepared  especially 
for  home  study,  each  written  by  an  acknowledged  authority  on 
the  subject.  The  arrangement  of  matter  is  such  as  to  carry  the 
student  forward  by  easy  stages.  Series  of  review  questions  are 
inserted  in  each  volume,  enabling  the  reader  to  test  his  knowl- 
edge and  make  it  a  permanent  possession.  The  illustrations  have 
been  selected  with  unusual  care  to  elucidate  the  text. 

C  The  work  will  be  found  to  cover  many  important  topics  on 
which  little  information  has  heretofore  been  available.  This  is 
especially  apparent  in  such  sections  as  those  on  Steel,  Concrete, 
and  Reinforced  Concrete  Construction ;  Building  Superintendence ; 
Estimating;  Contracts  and  Specifications,  including  the  princi- 
ples and  methods  of  awarding  and  executing  Government  con- 
tracts; and  Building  Law. 

C  The  Cyclopedia  is  a  compilation  of  many  of  the  most  valu- 
able Instruction  Papers  of  the  American  School  of  Correspond- 
ence, and  the  method  adopted  in  its  preparation  is  that  which  this 
School  has  developed  and  employed  so  successfully  for  many  years. 
This  method  is  not  an  experiment,  but  has  stood  the  severest  of  all 
tests — that  of  practical  use — which  has  demonstrated  it  to  be  the 
best  yet  devised  for  the  education  of  the  busy  working  man. 

C  In  conclusion,  grateful  acknowledgment  is  due  the  staff  of 
authors  and  collaborators,  without  whose  hearty  co-operation 
this  work  would  have  been  impossible. 


Table    of    Contents 


VOLUME  II 
Carpentry By  Gilbert  Townsendf        Page  *11 

Timber  in  Its  Natural  State:  Classes  of  Trees,  Growth,  Wood  Structure,  Defects 
in  Wood,  Conversion  of  Timber  into  Lumber  —  Varieties  of  Timber:  Conifers  or 
Needle-Leaved  Trees,  Broad-Leaved  Trees,  Imported  Timber  —  Timber  Charac- 
teristics: Hardness,  Toughness,  Flexibility,  Cleavage  —  Carpenters' Tools:  Steel 
Square,  Saws,  Planes,  Nails  —  Laying  Out:  Ground  Location,  Staking  Out  — 
Framing:  Joints  and  Splices  in  Carpentry  —  Joints  and  Splices  in  Joinery  — 
Wall:  Braced  Frame,  Balloon  Frame,  Sill,  Corner  Posts,  Girts,  Ledger  Board, 
Plate,  Braces,  Studding,  Nailing  Surfaces,  Intermediate  Studding — Partitions: 
Furring  Walls,  Cap  and  Sole,  Bridging  —  Shrinkage  and  Settlement  —  Floors : 
Girders,  Supports  and  Partitions,  Headers  and  Trimmers,  Joists,  Crowning, 
Bridging,  Porch  Floors,  Stairs,  Unsupported  Corners  —  Roof :  Styles  of.  Rafters, 
Pitch  —  Roof  —  Frame :  Layout,  Ridge,  Interior  Supports,  Double  Gable.  Mansard, 
Dormer  Window  —  Rafters :  Common,  Valley  and  Hip,  Jack,  Curved  Hip  —  Attic 
Partitions  —  Special  Framing:  Battered,  Trussed,  Inclined  and  Bowled  Floors, 
Heavy  Beams  and  Girders,  Balconies  and  Galleries  —  Timber  Trusses :  King- 
Post,  Queen-Post,  Fink,  Open  Timber — Towers  and  Steeples:  Cupolas,  Church 
Spires,  Domes,  Niches,  Vaults  and  Groins  —  Exterior  and  Interior  Finish : 
Sheathing,  Building  Paper,  Water  Table,  Clapboards,  Siding,  Corner  Boards, 
Shingles,  Eaves,  Ridge,  Skylight  Openings,  Dormer  Window,  Gambrel  Roof, 
Gable,  Double-Hung  Sash,  Casement  Sash  and  Frames,  Transoms,  MuUions, 
Windows  in  Brick  Walls,  Door  Frames,  Doors,  Base  or  Skirting,  Wainscoting, 
Wood  Cornices,  Wood  Ceiling  Beams,  Staircase 

Stair-Building     .     By  Fred  T.  Hodgson  and  Morris  Williams        Page  263 

Definition  of  Terms  —  Setting-Out  Stairs  —  Use  of  Pitch-Board  —  Vs'^ell-Hole  — 
Trimming  —  Straight  Flights  —  Stairs:  Dog-Legged,  Platform,  Winding,  Cir- 
cular, Elliptical,  Bullnose  Steps,  Open-Newel,  with  Curved  Turns,  Geometrical 

—  Cylinder  —  Kerfing  —  Strengthening  Stairs  —  Handrailing  —  Wreaths  —  Pro- 
jection—  Tangent  System  of  Squaring  Wreath  Joints — Face-Mold  —  Bevels  — 
Curves  on  Face-Mold  —  Risers 

The  Steel  Square        .        ...       By  Morris  Williams        Page  341 

Face  —  Tongue  —  Blade  —  Back  —  Octagon  Scale  —  Brace  Rule  —  Board  Measure 

—  Finding  Miters  and  Lengths  of  Sides  of  Polygons  —  Steel  Square  Applied  to 
Roof  Framing  —  Heel  Cut  of  Common,  Hip,  and  Valley  Rafters  —  Jack  Rafters 

—  Roofs  of  Equal  and  Unequal  Pitch. 

Index Page  387 


*  For  page  numbers,  see  foot  of  pages. 

t  For  professional  standing  of  authors,  see  list  of  Authors  and  Collaborators  at 
front  of  volume. 


CARPENTRY 

PART  I 


INTRODUCTION 


The  carpenter  has  always  been  a  worker  in  wood  and  probably 
will  always  be  so,  unless  we  are  so  foolish  as  to  neglect  the  newer 
art  of  Forestry  to  such  an  extent  that  in  the  course  of  time  we  have 
no  wood  wherein  to  work  and  with  which  to  build  and  decorate  our 
habitations.  The  building  and  the  decoration  of  houses  and  other 
structures  has  always  been  the  special  contribution  of  the  carpenter 
to  the  general  welfare  of  the  community,  and  this  feature  has  dis- 
tinguished him  from  other  woodworkers  such  as  carriage  builders, 
shipbuilders,  coopers,  and  makers  of  various  implements.  But 
whereas  the  carpenter  formerly  did  all  the  work  connected  with  the 
building  or  decoration  of  the  structure,  he  now  performs  only  a  small 
part  of  it.  At  one  time  he  was  called  upon  to  prepare  the  rough 
lumber  for  framing,  erect  the  building,  make  the  doors  and  windows 
together  with  their  frames,  and  then  make  and  put  in  place  all  the 
outside  and  inside  finish,  even  including  the  furniture.  In  these 
days,  however,  factories  are  doing  a  great  deal  of  this  work,  such  as 
the  manufacture  of  doors  and  window  sash,  interior  finish,  furniture, 
etc.,  and  the  lumber  which  was  formerly  prepared  by  hand  is  now 
sawed,  cut,  planed,  molded,  and  even  sandpapered  by  machinery, 
leaving  for  the  carpenter  the  preparation  of  the  framing  of  such 
buildings  as  are  not  large  enough  to  be  built  of  brick,  stone,  or  steel, 
and  the  putting  in  place  at  the  building  of  the  exterior  and  interior 
finish  which  has  previously  been  made  ready  so  far  as  possible  at  the 
factory.  The  old-time  joiner  has  given  way  to  the  modern  cabinet 
maker  or  the  factory  woodworker,  and  his  plane,  saw,  and  chisel 
have  been  replaced  by  electrically-driven  machinery  of  the  planing 
mill  and  the  door  factory.  Nevertheless,  the  principles  upon  which 
the  art  of  carpentry  is  based  have  not  changed,  and  we  still  use  the 

Copyright,  1912,  by  American  School  of  Correspondence. 


11 


2  CARPENTRY 

formulas,  and  profit  by  the  wisdom  which  has  come  down  to  us  from 
our  fathers. 

The  carpenter  has  always  found  at  hand  his  material  provided 
by  Nature,  needing  only  to  be  cut  down  and  shaped  to  suit  his  pur- 
poses. It  is  easily  worked,  beautiful  in  texture,  and  capable  of  being 
treated  with  paints,  oils,  and  varnishes  in  such  a  way  as  to  preserve 
it  and  at  the  same  time  give  it  a  pleasing  appearance.  So  suitable 
is  wood  for  purposes  of  interior  decoration  that  now  when  other 
materials  such  as  sheet  metal  are  substituted  for  it  on  account  of 
their  greater  durability  or  their  superiority  as  fire  resistants,  great 
pains  are  often  taken  to  make  these  materials  look  like  wood  by  the 
skillful  use  of  paints  and  varnishes,  and  such  good  results  have  been 
obtained  along  this  line,  and  the  grain  of  the  various  kinds  of  wood 
has  been  so  closely  imitated,  that  one  not  accustomed  to  woodwork 
in  a  business  way  can  hardly  distinguish  the  real  wood  from  the 
imitation. 

A  knowledge  of  the  characteristics  of  this  material  which  plays 
so  important  a  part  in  our  lives  and  which  is  so  plentiful,  especially 
in  the  more  recently  settled  parts  of  the  earth,  is  sure  to  prove  of 
advantage  to  all,  and  such  knowledge  is  an  absolute  necessity  to  the 
carpenter,  architect,  or  other  user  of  wood. 

Unlike  many  of  the  other  materials  used  in  building,  wood  has 
life  and  has  come  into  existence  by  a  process  known  as  growth,  and 
these  two  facts  have  a  very  important  bearing  on  the  use  of  wood 
in  construction,  as  they  affect  both  its  physical  characteristics  and 
its  action  after  it  has  been  put  in  place  in  a  building.  In  order, 
therefore,  to  be  able  to  make  use  of  wood  intelligently,  it  is  necessary 
to  know  something  about  its  mode  of  life,  its  method  of  growth,  and 
the  way  in  which  it  will  act  after  it  has  been  cut  away  from  the  tree, 
killed,  so  far  as  it  is  possible  to  kill  it,  by  seasoning  or  drying,  and 
then  setting  up  in  place.  All  woods  are  not  the  same  in  these  respects ; 
in  fact,  no  two  kinds  of  wood  are  exactly  the  same  in  structure,  nor 
will  they  behave  in  the  same  way  even  under  the  same  conditions, 
and  this  makes  it  necessary  to  select  them  very  carefully  for  various 
purposes  and  for  use  in  various  places. 

While  it  is  true  that  no  two  kinds  of  wood  are  exactly  the  same 
in  structure,  they  still  have  some  things  in  common.  For  example, 
all  wood  is  a  vegetable  product,  and  all  wood  is  built  up  in  the  same 


12 


CARPENTRY  3 

general  way  out  of  a  very  great  number  of  individual  parts  called 
cells,  or  fibers,  which  are  like  so  many  tiny  pockets  filled  with  a 
fluid  substance.  The  size,  shape,  and  arrangement  of  these  little 
cells  is  different  in  different  kinds  of  wood,  and  this  accounts  for  the 
differences  in  appearance,  texture,  and  durability.  Wood  is  largely 
composed  of  carbon,  which  accounts  for  the  readiness  with  which  it 
takes  fire  and  the  heat  which  it  gives  off  when  burned.  There  is 
also  a  considerable  quantity  of  water,  the  exact  amount  depending 
upon  whether  the  wood  is  seasoned  or  is  still  green,  and  even  seasoned 
wood,  if  it  is  left  lying  about  in  a  damp  place,  will  absorb  more  or 
less  moisture  from  the  atmosphere. 

There  are  two  words  which  are  used  to  describe  the  wood  used 
for  building  purposes,  namely,  timber  and  lumber.  Timber  is  the 
name  which  can  properly  be  applied  to  any  wood  which  is  suitable 
for  structural  uses,  when  the  material  is  in  its  natural  state,  before 
it  has  been  cut  down  and  prepared  for  the  market.  Lumber  is  the 
word  which  should  be  used  to  describe  the  timber  after  it  has  been 
cut  down  and  sawed  up  into  pieces  ready  for  use.  In  practice,  the 
word  timber  is  often  used  to  designate  the  larger  beams  of  a  structure 
although  these  beams  are  ready  for  use.  We  will  first  consider  the 
timber  in  its  natural  condition,  study  its  manner  of  growth,  the 
different  classes  of  trees,  the  defects  which  are  to  be  found  in  this 
material  and  their  causes,  the  way  in  which  timber  is  converted  into 
lumber,  and  pass  on  to  a  consideration  of  the  various  kinds  of  timber, 
studying  the  characteristics  of  each  both  in  its  natural  state  and 
after  it  has  been  prepared  for  use. 

TIMBER  IN  ITS  NATURAL  STATE 
CLASSES  OF  TREES 

There  are  in  general  four  kinds  of  trees  from  which  timber 
suitable  for  structural  purposes  may  be  obtained,  which  differ  from 
each  other  in  their  manner  of  growth  and  in  the  details  of  their  struc- 
ture, as  well  as  in  their  adaptability  to  building  work,  but  of  these 
only  two,  the  so-called  broad-leaved  trees  and  the  needle-leaved 
trees,  yield  timber  used  in  any  great  quantity  for  building.  The 
other  two  are  suitable  for  structural  work  but  for  one  reason  or 
another  have  not  been  extensively  utilized  as  yet  except  in  the 
immediate  neighborhood  of  the  places  where  they  grow.     This  is 


13 


4  CARPENTRY 

especially  true  of  the  bamboos,  which  grow  in  abundance  in  China 
and  the  Philippine  Islands  and  are  there  used  extensively  for  building 
purposes,  but  which  have  never  as  yet  been  introduced  into  other 
countries,  although  the  wood  has  certain  characteristics  which  might 
make  it  very  suitable  for  use  in  some  locations,  and  the  tree  could 
probably  be  made  to  grow  in  any  warm  climate  such  as  that  of  the 
southern  states.  There  is  another  class  of  tree  of  which  the  palms 
are  the  most  well-known  representatives,  but  the  use  of  the  lumber 
cut  from  these  trees  is  very  limited. 

Manner  of  Growth.  There  is  a  marked  difference  between  the 
four  classes  of  trees  mentioned  above  in  regard  to  their  manner  of 
growth.  The  palms  and  bamboos  are  somewhat  similar  and  are 
known  as  endogenous  trees,  differing  from  the  broad-leaved  trees  and 

the  conifers  which  are  known  as  exogenous 
trees.  The  endogens,  to  which  family 
also  belong  cornstalks  and  certain  kinds 
of  grasses,  increase  from  the  inside  and 
do  not  usually  have  a  covering  of  bark. 
The  wood  is  soft  in  the  center  of  the 
trunk  and  becomes  hard  toward  the  out- 
side. The  soft  interior  of  the  stem  some- 
times is  found  to  be  missing  entirely, 
leaving  a  hollow  sort  of  tube,  but  this  is 
Fig.  1.    Log  Section  of  Conifer     truc  of   the   bamboos  only,  the   palms 

Sho-wmg  Age  Rings  ''  '  ^ 

being  solid.  The  wood  of  these  trees  is 
composed  of  a  multitude  of  cells  or  pockets  like  that  of  the  exogenous 
trees,  but  the  end  of  a  log  which  has  been  cut  does  not  show  the 
rings  which  we  see  at  the  end  of  a  log  cut  from  a  broad-leaved  tree 
or  a  conifer.  Fig.  1.  Instead  we  see  a  series  of  dots  of  a  darker  color 
than  the  general  surface,  the  difference  being  due  to  the  different 
ways  in  which  the  two  kinds  of  trees  grow. 

The  exogenous  trees,  to  which  class  belong  the  broad-leaved 
trees  and  the  conifers,  increase  from  year  to  year  both  in  height 
and  in  size  of  trunk.  The  increase  in  height  and  in  the  length  of 
the  branches  is  the  result  of  a  sort  of  extension  process  which  takes 
place  at  the  ends  of  all  the  small  offshoots  as  well  as  at  the  extreme 
end  of  the  main  trunk  of  the  tree.  A  bud  is  first  formed  at  each 
of  these  places  and  speedily  develops  into  a  small  twig,  at  first  quite 


14 


CARPENTRY  5 

soft  and  with  a  covering  of  thin  skin.  In  the  course  of  time  the 
skin  gets  harder  and  darker  in  color  and  the  woody  tissue  inside 
gets  firmer,  while  the  extension  process  continues  to  take  place  at 
the  end.  Thus  the  branch  or  trunk  of  the  tree  becomes  each  year 
a  little  longer  but  any  particular  point  on  the  branch  remains  in  the 
same  position  with  relation  to  the  ground  or  to  the  parent  trunk  or 
branch.  While  the  lengthening  process  is  going  on,  another  and  a 
different  kind  of  growth  is  taking  place.  The  fluid  known  as  sap 
is  continually  passing  up  and  down  between  the  roots  of  the  tree  and 
the  leaves,  and  each  year  a  new  layer  of  wood  is  formed  on  the  outside 
of  the  trunk  and  branches  underneath  the  bark.  Thus  a  cross 
section  of  the  trunk  of  an  exogenous  tree  presents  a  series  of  rings 
beginning  at  the  center,  where  there  is  a  small,  whitish  substance 
called  pith,  and  extending  to  the  outside  where  there  is  a  covering 
of  bark.  In  Fig.  1,  ^  is  the  pith,  B  is  the  woody  part  of  the  tree, 
and  C  is  the  bark.  The  arrangement  of  the  wood  in  concentric 
rings  is  due  to  the  fact  that  it  was  formed  gradually,  one  layer  being 
added  each  year,  and  for  this  reason  the  rings  or  layers  are  called 
annual  rings.  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  age  of  the  tree  may 
usually  be  determined  with  a  fair  degree  of  accuracy  by  counting 
the  number  of  layers  which  appear  on  the  cross  section.  The  width 
of  the  annual  rings  varies  from  one-fiftieth  of  an  inch  to  one-eighth 
of  an  inch  according  to  the  character  of  the  tree  and  the  position  of 
the  ring  with  relation  to  the  center.  In  general,  it  may  be  said  that 
the  widest  rings  are  to  be  found  nearest  the  center  or  pith  and  that 
they  grow  regularly  narrower  as  they  approach  the  outside  or  bark. 
They  are  also  wider  at  the  bottom  of  the  tree  than  at  the  top.  The 
rings  are  very  seldom  circular  or  regular  in  form,  but  follow  the 
contour  of  the  tree  trunk. 

The  wood  nearest  to  the  center  of  the  tree  where  the  pith  is 
located  is  considerably  harder  and  denser,  as  well  as  darker  in  color, 
than  that  which  is  on  the  outside  nearer  the  bark.  This  wood  is 
called  heartwood  to  distinguish  it  from  the  other  and  softer  wood 
which  is  called  sapwood.  The  reason  why  the  heartwood  is  harder 
and  denser  than  the  sapwood  is  that  it  is  older  and  has  been  com- 
pressed more  and  more  each  year  as  the  tree  has  increased  in  size, 
so  that  the  pores  have  gradually  become  filled  up.  The  sapwood 
is  soft  and  of  a  lighter  color  than  the  heartwood  showing  that  it  has 


15 


6  CARPENTRY     ^ 

been  more  recently  formed.  The  time  required  to  transform  the 
wood  from  sapwood  to  heartwood  varies  from  nine  to  thirty-five 
years,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  tree,  and  those  trees  which 
perform  this  hardening  in  the  shortest  time  usually  yield  the  most 
durable  timber.  It  is  not  certainly  known  whether  the  change  from 
sapwood  to  heartwood  takes  place  ring  by  ring  and  year  by  year  or 
whether  sections  of  the  trunk  consisting  of  a  number  of  rings  change 
at  the  same  time,  but  it  is  probable  that  the  latter  process  is  what 
really  takes  place,  indeed  there  seems  to  be  evidence  to  show  that 
not  even  the  whole  of  each  ring  changes  at  one  time,  but  that  part 
of  a  ring  may  remain  sapwood  after  the  remainder  has  become 
heartwood. 

In  addition  to  the  annual  rings,  there  are  to  be  seen  on  the  cross 
section  of  any  log  other  lines  which  run  from  the  center  toward  the 
bark  at  right  angles  to  the  annual  rings.  These  are  called  medullary 
rays.  Usually  they  do  not  extend  to  the  bark,  but  alternate  with 
others  which  start  at  the  bark  and  run  in  toward  the  center  but 
are  lost  before  they  reach  the  pith.  This  is  shown  at  E  and  F  in  the 
figure.  The  medullary  rays  are  much  more  pronounced  and  the 
structure  of  the  wood  is  much  more  complicated  in  the  broad-leaved 
trees  than  in  the  conifers,  the  structure  of  which  is  comparatively 
simple  with  most  of  the  fibers  running  up  and  down  in  the  direction 
of  the  growth  of  the  tree.  Thus,  the  wood  of  the  pines  and  other 
conifers  splits  very  much  more  easily  than  that  of  the  oaks,  chestnuts, 
and  other  broad-leaved  trees. 

Medullary  rays  are  sometimes  called  pith  rays  and  are  caused 
by  fibers  or  bundles  of  fibers  which  run  at  right  angles  to  the  others. 
It  is  the  pith  rays  which  appear  as  smooth,  shiny  spots  or  blotches 
in  woods  which  have  been  quarter  sawed.  This  will  be  explained 
later  when  dealing  with  the  conversion  of  timber  from  its  natural 
state  into  planks  and  other  shapes  ready  for  the  market. 

Details  of  Wood  Structure.  If  a  piece  of  wood  were  to  be 
examined  carefully  under  a  microscope  it  would  be  seen  that  it  was 
a  composite  substance,  made  up  of  a  great  number  of  very  small 
fibers,  and  that  these  fibers  were  not  solid  but  were  so  many  little 
tubes  or  cells  arranged  together  in  a  more  or  less  complicated  manner 
according  to  the  kind  of  wood.  Thus  a  piece  cut  from  one  of  the 
needle-leaved  trees  would  be  seen  to  be  much  more  simple  and  regular 


16 


CARPENTRY  7 

in  arrangement  than  a  piece  cut  from  one  of  the  broad-leaved  trees. 
Both  kinds  of  wood  are  composed  of  bundles  of  these  fibers  or  tubes 
running  parallel  to  the  stem  of  the  tree  which  are  crossed  by  other 
fibers  running  at  right  angles  to  the  first  ones  and  binding  the  whole 
together.  The  cross  fibers  are  much  more  numerous  in  the  wood  of 
the  broad-leaved  trees  than  in  that  of  the  conifers,  and  it  is  these 
fibers  which  appear  on  the  cross  section  of  a  log  as  pith  rays.  There 
are  also  to  be  seen  through  the  microscope  a  few  resin  ducts  and 
other  special  fibers  scattered  through  the  wood.  It  is  said  that  in 
pisae  more  than  15,000  fibers  occur  on  a  square  inch  of  section  so 
that  each  one  is  very  small  and  they  can  not  be  distinguished  without 
the  aid  of  a  powerful  microscope.  The  general  arrangement  is 
shown  in  Fig.  2,  in  which  A  A  are  the  fibers  parallel  to  the  trunk 
of  the  tree  and  BB  are  the  cross  fibers.  It  will  be  noticed  in  this 
figure  that  the  more  numerous  the  cross  fibers, 
the  more  thoroughly  the  wood  will  be  tied  to- 
gether, and  the  harder  and  tougher  it  \\ill  be;  also 
that  it  will  split  much  more  readily  if  there  are 
a  few  cross  fibers  than  it  will  if  there  are  many. 
Thus  the  most  important  characteristics  of  tim- 
ber are  directly  dependent  on  the  structure  of 
the  wood. 

Grain.  The  arrangement  of  the  fibers  which 
go  to  make  up  a  piece  of  timber  give  to  it  certain 
characteristics  which  are  described  as  different  conditions  of  the 
"grain"  of  the  wood,  the  word  "grain"  being  used  as  a  substitute 
for  the  word  fiber.  Thus  "across  the  grain,"  means  at  right 
angles  to  the  general  direction  of  the  fibers;  "along  the  grain," 
means  parallel  to  the  direction  of  the  fibers.  In  like  manner 
woods  are  said  to  be  "fine  grained,"  "coarse  grained,"  "cross 
grained,"  or  "straight  grained,"  these  terms  being  used  to  indi- 
cate the  relation  of  the  fibers  to  each  other  and  to  the  general 
direction  of  the  growth  of  the  tree.  The  wood  is  said  to  be  fine 
grained  when  the  annual  rings  are  relatively  narrow  so  as  to  show 
a  large  number  of  fine  lines  on  a  cross  section  of  the  log,  and  it  is 
said  to  be  coarse  grained  when  the  rings  are  wider  so  as  to  show  a 
smaller  number  of  coarser  lines  on  the  cross  section  of  the  log.  Woods 
which  are  fine  grained  are  generally  harder  and  denser  than  those 


Fig.  2.     Diagram  of 

Pine  Wood  Fibers 

Magnified 


17 


8 


CARPENTRY 


If 
!» 


which  are  coarse  grained  and  they  can  be  made  to  take  a  high  poHsh, 
while  with  the  others,  as  a  rule,  this  is  not  possible.  Fine-grained 
woods  are  also  said  to  be  close  grained.  When  the  fibers  are  straight 
and  parallel  to  the  direction  of  the  trunk  of  the  tree,  the  wood  is 
said  to  be  straight  grained,  but  if  they  are  twisted  so  as  to  be  spiral 
in  form,  not  growing  straight  but  following  around  the  trunk  of  the 
tree,  the  wood  is  said  to  be  cross  grained.  In  Fig.  3,  are  shown 
three  pieces  of  timber  of  which  A  is  absolutely  cross  grained,  B  is 
partially  cross  grained,  and  C  is  straight  grained.  As  examples,  it 
may  be  mentioned  that  hemlock  is  coarse  grained  and  usually 
cross   grained,  while  white   pine  is   close   grained,  although   soft, 

and  is  usually  straight  grained. 
Most  of  the  hard  woods  are  fine 
grained. 

Defects  in  Wood.  The  fact 
that  timber  is  not  a  manufactured 
material  like  iron  or  cement  but 
is  a  natural  product  which  has 
been  formed  by  years  of  growth 
in  the  open  where  it  has  been  all 
the  while  exposed  to  various  ad- 
verse conditions  of  wind  and 
weather,  make  it  peculiarly  liable  to  defects  of  different  kinds,  most  of 
which  can  not  be  corrected  and  which  render  much  of  it  unsuitable  for 
use  in  construction.  Moreover  timber  is  not  homogeneous  like  iron 
and  steel  products,  in  other  words,  it  can  not  be  safely  assumed  that 
several  pieces  of  timber,  even  if  they  are  cut  from  the  same  log,  will 
have  similar  characteristics  or  will  act  in  nearly  the  same  way  under 
the  same  conditions.  Each  piece  of  timber  must  be  judged  by 
itself  and  must  be  subjected  to  a  very  careful  inspection  if  it  is  to  be 
used  in  an  important  position  with  satisfactory  results.  Such 
inspection  will  often  reveal  some  hidden  weakness  or  blemish  which 
is  sufficient  to  warrant  the  rejection  of  the  piece  as  not  good  enough 
for  the  particular  purpose  for  which  it  is  intended,  and  such  weaknesses 
or  blemishes  are  known  as  defects. 

Most  of  the  defects  which  render  timber  unsuitable  for  building 
purposes  are  due  to  irregularities  in  the  growth  of  the  tree  from 
which  the  timber  has  been  taken.     These  defects  are  known  by 


Fig.  3.     Blocks  Showing  Cross  Grained, 

Partially  Cross  Grained,  and  Straight 

Grained  Wood 


18 


CARPENTRY 


Section  of  Log  Showing 
Heartshake 


various  names  as  "heartshakes,"  "windshakes,"  "starshakes,"  and 
"knots."  Other  defects  are  due  to  deterioration  of  the  timber  after 
it  has  been  in  place  for  some  time  or  even  before  the  tree  has  been 
felled,  among  which  are  "dry  rot"  and  "wet  rot."  The  defects  of 
the  first  class  are  defects  of  structure; 
those  of  the  second  class  are  defects  of 
the  material  itself.  It  may  also  be  said 
that  the  defects  of  the  first  class  are  per- 
manent and  are  definitely  defined,  being 
caused  by  outside  forces  or  conditions, 
thus  the  timber  affected  can  be  cut  out 
and  discarded  leaving  the  rest  of  the  piece 
perfectly  sound  and  good,  as  the  defect 
does  not  influence  the  timber  near  to  it 
and  does  not  spread.  On  the  other  hand  ^'^-  "*■ 
the  defects  of  the  second  class  are  in  the 

nature  of  a  disease  which  spreads  from  one  part  of  a  piece  of  timber 
to  another  and  can  even  be  carried  from  one  piece  of  timber  to  an- 
other by  contact. 

Heartshake.    As  indicated  by  the  name,  heartshake  is  a  defect 
which  shows  itself  at  the  heart  of  the  tree  in  the  center  of  the  trunk. 
The  appearance  of  a  cross  section  of  a  log  affected  by  heartshake 
is  shown  in  Fig.  4.    There  is  first  a  small 
cavity  at  the  center  caused  by  decay,  and 
flaws  or  cracks  extend  from  this  cavity 
outward  toward  the  bark.      The  heart- 
shake is  most  often  found  in  those  trees 
which  are  old,  rather  than  in  young,  vig- 
orous saplings;  it  is  especially  to  be  feared 
in  hemlock  timber. 

Windshake.  The  defect  known  as  a 
windshake  is  so-called  on  account  of 
the  belief  that  it  is  caused  by  the  rack- 
ing and  wrenching  to  which  the  growing 

tree  is  subjected  by  high  winds.  It  is  also  claimed  that  it  is 
produced  by  the  expansion  of  the  sapwood  which  causes  a  sep- 
aration'of  the  annual  rings  from  each  other,  thus  leaving  a  hollow 
space  in  the  body  of  the  trunk  and  following  around  between  two 


Fig.  5. 


Section  of  Log  Showing 
Windshake 


19 


10  CARPENTRY 

of  the  annual  rings.  ,  Fig.  5  shows  the  appearance  of  a  windshake 
on  the  cross  section  of  a  log,  and  this  appearance  has  given  rise  to 
the  term  cupshake  which  is  sometimes  used  instead  of  windshake. 
The  hollow  space  may  extend  for  a  considerable  distance  up  the 
trunk  of  the  tree.  Windshakes  are  very  frequently  found  in  pine 
timber. 

Starshake.  A  starshake  is  not  readily  distinguished  from  a 
heartshake,  as  the  appearance  of  a  log  of  wood  affected  by  one  is 
very  similar  to  that  of  a  log  affected  by  the  other,  but  the  difference 
between  the  two  is  that  while  the  center  of  a  log  affected  by  a  heart- 
shake is  decayed  so  as  to  leave  a  large  round  cavity  at  this  point,  a 
log  affected  by  a  starshake  shows  no  such  decay  at  the  center,  but 
the  cracks  forming  the  star  extend  right  across  the  cross  section  of 
the  log,  becoming  wider  as  they  approach  the  center  and  narrowing 
down  to  nothing  near  the  bark,  while  all  of  the  wood  has  the  appear- 
ance of  being  sound. 

Dry  Rot.  The  defects  which  have  been  mentioned  above 
are  all  of  such  a  kind  that  they  can  be  readily  detected  in  the 
timber  before  it  has  been  put  in  position  in  a  structure,  and, 
therefore,  the  use  of  the  timber  so  affected  may  be  avoided,  but 
dry  rot,  while  it  is  probably  the  most  common  and  the  most 
dangerous  defect  of  them  all,  may  start  and  spread  rapidly  in 
timber  which  appears  to  be  absolutely  sound  when  it  is  put  in 
place.  Dry  rot  is  a  disease  which  fastens  itself  upon  the  wood 
and  spreads  from  one  part  of  it  to  another,  causing  it  to  lose  its 
strength  and  cohesive  power  and  even  to  decay  altogether.  It 
may  be  readily  seen  that  this  process  can  lead  to  most  serious 
results  when  it  takes  place  in  timber  which  is  depended  upon  to 
carry  heavy  loads.  Large  beams  and  posts  have  been  known  to 
fail  and  thereby  cause  considerable  damage  solely  because  of 
dry  rot,  and  others  have  been  so  weakened  by  the  ravages  of  this 
disease  that  they  have  yielded  when  subjected  to  slight  fires 
which  would  have  had  very  little  effect  upon  them  if  they  had  been 
sound. 

The  timber  in  which  dry  rot  is  most  to  be  feared  is  that  which 
is  kept  alternately  wet  and  dry,  while  that  which  is  always  either 
entirely  submerged  in  water  or  absolutely  dry  appears  to  be  able  to 
last  indefinitely  without  a  sign  of  the  disease.     For  this  re*ason  wood 


20 


CARPENTRY  11 

piles  should  always  be  cut  off  below  the  water  level.  Decay  takes 
place  very  rapidly  when  the  wood  is  in  a  confined  position  where 
the  gases  can  not  escape.  The  ends  of  beams  buried  in  brickwork 
and  the  ends  of  posts  fitting  into  iron  caps  and  bases  are  examples 
of  such  cases,  and  special  precautions  should  be  taken  to  allow  the 
air  to  circulate  freely  around  such  woodwork  wherever  this  is  pos- 
sible. Woodwork  which  is  in  contact  with  wet  or  damp  materials, 
such  as  wet  concrete  or  masonry  in  which  the  mortar  has  not  dried 
out  thoroughly,  is  peculiarly  liable  to  dry  rot.  Wood  flooring  laid  on 
top  of  newly-placed  concrete  slabs  and  immediately  covered  with 
some  other  substance  has  been  known  to  rot  very  quickly.  It  is 
also  noticeable  that  this  form  of  decay  seems  to  be  hastened  by 
warmth  and  is  more  common  in  the  southern  climates  than  in  the 
northern.  It  may  be  prevented  by  introducing  into  the  timber 
certain  salts  such  as  the  salts  of  mercury,  also  by  heating  the  wood 
to  a  temperature  above  150°  F.  and  keeping  it  at  that  temperature. 
As  precautionary  measures,  all  wood  should  be  thoroughly  seasoned 
before  being  painted,  as  good  ventilation  as  possible  should  be  pro- 
vided for  it,  and  it  should  be  kept  from  contact  with  anything  from 
which  it  can  absorb  moisture.  Posts  should  have  a  hole  about  one 
and  one-half  inches  in  diameter  bored  through  them  from  end  to 
end,  and  other  holes  near  each  end  bored  through  them  crosswise, 
so  as  to  provide  for  the  free  circulation  of  air  in  the  interior  of 
the  post. 

Wet  Rot.  There  is  another  form  of  decay  which  affects  wood 
in  a  manner  somewhat  similar  to  dry  rot,  but  which  takes  place  in 
the  growing  tree.  It  is  known  as  "wet  rot"  and  is  caused  by  the 
wood  becoming  saturated  with  water  which  it  may  absorb  from  a 
swamp  or  bog.  Wet  rot  may  be  readily  communicated  from  one 
piece  of  wood  to  another-  by  contact  so  that  it  is  apt  to  spread 
rapidly. 

Knots.  Knots  are  more  or  less  common  in  all  timber,  and 
consist  of  small  pieces  of  dead  wood  which  occupy  a  place  in  the 
body  of  the  log  with  sound  wood  all  around  them.  These  bits  of 
dead  wood  have  no  connection  with  the  living  wood  about  them,  so 
that  in  the  course  of  time  they  work  loose,  and  when  the  log  is  sawed 
up  into  boards  the  pieces  of  dead  wood  fall  out  leaving  round  or 
irregular-shaped  holes.     Knots  are  formed  at  the  juncture  of  the 


21 


12 


CARPENTRY 


main  tree  trunk  with  branches  or  Hmbs,  while  such  branches  are 
still  young  and  green.  At  such  points  the  fibers  of  the  main  trunk, 
near  the  place  where  the  branch  comes  in,  do  not  follow  straight 
along  up  the  trunk,  but  are  turned  aside  so  as  to  follow  along  the 
branch  as  shown  in  Fig.  6.  Frequently  such  a  branch  is  broken  off 
near  the  trunk  of  the  tree  when  it  is  still  young,  while  the  tree  itself 
continues  to  grow  and  the  trunk  increases  in  size  until  the  end  of 
the  branch  which  was  left  buried  in  the  main  trunk  is  entirely  covered 
up.  Meanwhile  the  end  of  the  branch  dies  and  a  knot  is  formed. 
The  presence  of  a  limited  number  of  knots  will  not  harm  a  piece 
of  timber  which  is  subjected  to  a  compressive  stress  so  long  as  they 
remain  in  place  and  do  not  drop  out,  but  they  very  greatly  weaken 
a  piece  subjected  to  a  tension  stress  or  used  as 
a  beam.  Knots  always  spoil  the  appearance  of 
woodwork  which  is  to  be  polished. 

The  defects  heretofore  considered  result  from 
the  natural  growth  of  the  tree  and  are  not  at- 
tributable to  the  handling  of  the  timber  after 
it  has  been  cut,  but  there  are  several  classes  of 
defects  which  are  caused  by  the  seasoning  of  the 
timber  and  which  have  little  or  nothing  to  do 
with  the  growth  of  the  tree.  Among  these  are 
the  actions  known  as  "warping"  and  "check- 
ing." 

Warping.  This  is  the  result  of  the  evapora- 
tion or  drying  out  of  the  water  which  is  held  in 
^fermat!on*oTa^K°^  the  ccU  walls  of  the  wood  in  its  natural  state,  and 
the  shrinkage  which  naturally  follows.  If  wood 
were  perfectly  regular  in  structure,  so  that  the  shrinkage  could 
be  the  same  in  every  part,  there  would  be  no  warping,  but  wood  is . 
made  up  of  a  large  number  of  fibers,  the  walls  of  which  are  of  dif- 
ferent thicknesses  in  different  parts  of  the  tree  or  log,  so  that  in 
drying  one  part  shrinks  much  more  than  another.  Since  the  wood 
fibers  are  in  close  contact  with  each  other  and  interlaced,  thus 
making  the  piece  of  wood  rigid,  one  part  can  not  shrink  or  swell 
without  changing  the  shape  of  the  whole  piece,  because  the  piece 
as  a  whole  must  adjust  itself  to  the  new  conditions;  consequently 
the  timber  warps. 


22 


CARPENTRY 


13 


straight  Board 


In  Fig.  7,  if  the  fibers  in  the  lower  portion  of  the  piece  near  the 
face  CDG  happen  to  have,  on  the  average,  thicker  walls  than  those 
in  the  upper  portion,  near  the 
face  ABFE,  the  lower  part  will 
shrink  more  than  the  upper 
part.  The  distance  CD,  orig- 
inally equal  to  the  distance 
AB,  becomes  smaller  and  the 
shape  of  the  whole  piece 
changes  as  shown  in  Fig.  8. 

The  only  way  in  which 
warping  can  be  prevented  is 
to  have  the  timber  thoroughly 
dried  out  before  it  is  used,  as 
after    it    is    once    thoroughly 

seasoned  it  will  not  warp  unless  it  is  allowed  to  absorb  more  mois- 
ture. All  wood  which  is  to  be  used  for  fine  work,  where  any 
warping  after  it  is  in  place  will  spoil  the  appearance  of  the  entire  job, 
must  be  so  seasoned,  either  in  the  open  air  or  in  a  specially  pre- 
pared kiln. 

The  wood  of  the  conifers  which  is  very  regular  in  its  structure 
shrinks  more  evenly  and  warps  less  than  does  the  wood  of  the  broad- 
leaved  trees  with  its  more  complex  and  irregular  structure.  Sap- 
wood,  also,  as  a  rule  shrinks  more  than  does  heartwood. 

Checks.  Another  defect 
which  is  caused  by  the  drying  y^  y    f^ 

out  of  the  timber  and  the  con- 
sequent shrinkage  of  the  cell 
walls  is  what  is  known  as 
checking.  In  any  log  of  wood 
there  is  always  opportunity  for 
shrinkage  in  two  directions, 
along  the  radial  lines  following 
the  direction  of  the  medullary 
rays,  and  around  the  circum- 
ference of  the  log  following  the  direction  of  the  annual  rings.  If  the 
wood  shrinks  in  both  directions  at  the  same  rate,  the  result  will  be 
only  a  decrease  in  the  volume  of  the  log,  but  if  it  shrinks  more  rapidly 


Fig.  8.     Warped  Board 


23 


14 


CARPENTRY 


around  the  circumference  of  the  log  than  along  the  radial  lines,  the 
log  must  develop  cracks  around  the  outside  as  shown  in  Fig.  9. 
Such  cracks  are  called  checks.    In  timber  which  has  been  prepared 


> 


Fig.  9.     Log  Showing  Checks 


Fig.  10.     Finished  Timber 
Showing  Checks 


for  the  market  they  show  themselves  in  the  form  of  cracks  which 
extend  along  the  faces  of  solid  squared  timbers  and  boards,  seriously 
impau-ing  their  strength.  Fig.  10  shows  checks  as  they  would  appear 
in  a  square  post  or  column. 

Conversion  of  Timber  into  Lumber.  Lumber  may  be  found  in 
lumber  yards  in  certain  shapes  ready  for  use,  having  been  cut  from 
the  logs  and  relieved  of  their  outside  covering  of  bark.  The  cutting 
up  of  the  logs  is  done  in  the  mills  by  machinery  and  there  are  various 
methods  in  use  for  transforming  the  logs  into  boards,  planks,  and 


5 

\ 
\ 

\ 

\ 

^ 

\ 
\ 

\ 

Fig.  11.  Economical  Method 
of  Cutting  Logs 


Fig.  12.     Another  Method 
of  Cutting  Logs 


heavy  timbers.    The  method  of  cutting  the  log  determines  the 

appearance  of  the  wood  when  finished  and  also  affects  it  in  other  ways. 

If  the  log  is  to  be  squared  off  so  as  to  form  only  one  heavy  beam 

or  post,  a  good  rule  to  follow  is  to  divide  the  diameter  into  three 


84 


CARPENTRY 


15 


equal  parts  and  then  to  draw  perpendiculars  to  this  diameter  at  the 
division  points  one  on  each  side  of  the  center,  as  shown  at  A  and  B 
in  Fig.  11.  The  points  C  and  D  in  which  these  perpendiculars  to 
the  diameter  cut  the  circumference  of  the  log,  together  with  the 
points  E  and  F  in  which  the  diameter  cuts  the  circumference  of  the 
log,  will  be  the  four  corners  of  the  timber.  The  lines  joining  these 
points  will  give  an  outline  of  the  timber,  which  will  be  rectangular 
and  will  be  found  to  be  the  largest  and  best  timber  which  can  be 
cut  from  the  log.  Another  good  rule  is  to  divide  the  diameter  of  the 
log  into  four  equal  parts  and  to  proceed  in  the  same  way  as  described 
above,  using  the  outside  quarter  points  from  which  to  draw  the 
perpendiculars  as  shown  in  Fig.  12.  This  method  will  give  the 
outlines  of  a  stiff er  beam  than  the  one  described  above,  but  there 
will  be  more  waste  from  the  log  and  the 
beam  will  not  be  on  the  whole  as  strong 
as  the  other. 

In  Fig.  13  are  shown  several  different 
methods  of  cutting  planks  from  a  log. 
First  it  is  divided  into  quarters,  and  the 
planks  are  cut  out  as  shown  in  the  figure, 
there  being  four  ways  in  which  the  work 
may  be  done.  All  of  the  four  methods 
shown  may  be  said  to  give  what  is  called 
quarter-sawed  lumber  since  the  log  is  first 
cut  into  quarters,  but  that  shown  at  A  is  the  best.  All  of  the  planks 
are  cut  radiating  from  the  center  of  the  log  and  there  will  be  no  split- 
ting or  warping,  but  the  method  is  very  expensive,  as  all  of  the  planks 
have  to  be  squared  up  afterward  and  there  is  much  waste  as  a  result. 
A  fairly  good  method  is  that  shown  at  B  where  the  planks  are  nearly 
along  radial  lines  and  may  be  much  more  easily  and  cheaply  cut 
out  than  can  those  shown  at  A.  The  method  shown  at  C  is  a  com- 
mon one  and  leads  to  fairly  good  results,  although  only  the  plank 
nearest  the  center  is  on  a  radial  line.  It  is  practically  as  good  a 
method  as  that  shown  at  B  and  is  much  more  simple.  The  method 
shown  at  D  is  not  so  good  as  the  others,  as  planks  cut  out  in  this 
way  are  very  liable  to  warp  and  twist.  If  the  silver  grain,  caused 
by  cutting  of  the  medullary  rays  is  desired,  the  planks  must  be  cut 
as  shown  at  ^,  B,  or  C. 


Fig.  13.     Method  of  Cutting 
Planks  from  a  Log 


25 


16 


CARPENTRY 


Fig.  14.     Method  of  Slicing  a  Log 


Planks  are  sometimes  simply  sliced  from  the  log  as  shown  in 
Fig.  14,  without  first  dividing  it  into  quarters,  but  this  is  the  worst 
possible  way  of  cutting  them,  as  the  natural  tendency  of  the  timber 

to  shrink  causes  the  planks  to  curl  up  as 
shown  in  Fig.  15.  It  is  almost  impossible 
to  flatten  them  out  again,  and  they  can 
not  be  used  in  that  condition. 

There  is  another  method  of  cutting  up 
a  log  which  has  been  introduced  more 
recently  than  the  others,  and  which  is 
known  as  the  "rotary  cut."  It  consists 
in  placing  the  log  on  a  movable  carriage 
which  keeps  it  whirling  rapidly  about  its 
longitudinal  axis,  at  the  same  time  bring- 
ing it  up  against  a  long  stationary  knife  which  catches  the  log  and 
peels  off  strips  around  the  circumference  of  any  desired  thickness. 
This  method  is  used  extensively  in  the  preparation  of  wood  to  be 
used  as  veneers,  and  in  the  case  of  many  kinds  of  wood  the  figure  is 
brought  out  to  better  advantage  in  this  way  than  is  possible  with 
any  other  method. 

Waney  Lumber.  When  a  log  of  wood  has  been  sawed  up  into 
boards,  each  board  is  apt  to  have  along  the  edge  a  strip  of  the  bark 
which  was  originally  on  the  outside  of  the  log,  and  the  edges  will 
not  be  square  with  the  face  of  the  board,  owing  to  the  cylindrical 
shape  of  the  log.  Such  boards  should  be  squared  up  by  having  the 
rough  edges  to  which  the  bark  adheres  trimmed  off.  But  sometimes 
the  bark  alone  is  stripped  off,  leaving  the  boards  with  the  edges 
not  square  with  the  face.  Such  boards  are  said  to  be  waney,  and 
very   often   specifications   state  that  no   waney   lumber   shall    be 

employed  on  the  work.  The  pieces  which 
are  cut  off  when  waney  boards  are 
trimmed  in  order  to  square  them  up 
are  called  "edging"  and  are  used  to  make 
laths. 

Slabs.  The  pieces  known  as  slabs  are  those  which  are  left  over 
after  a  log  has  been  sawed  up  into  boards.  In  cross  section  they  are 
of  the  shape  of  a  half  moon,  and  are  covered  with  bark.  They  are 
useless  except  for  laths  or  fuel. 


Fig.  15.  Slicing  Logs  Gives 
Warped  Lumber 


26 


CARPENTRY  17 

VARIETIES  OF  TIMBER 

Although  there  are  a  great  many  different  kinds  of  trees  growing 
in  different  parts  of  the  world,  only  a  comparatively  small  number 
of  them  yield  wood  which  is  used  to  any  great  extent  in  building 
work.  These  differ  very  much  among  themselves,  each  variety 
possessing  certain  characteristics  which  render  it  especially  suitable 
for  use  in  one  part  of  a  building,  while  the  same  peculiarities  of 
growth  or  of  texture  may  make  it  unfit  for  use  in  another. 

For  use  in  places  where  the  timber  must  be  partly  buried  in 
the  ground  a  wood  is  required  which  will  be  able  to  withstand  the 
deteriorating  effects  of  contact  with  the  earth,  and  for  this  purpose 
chestnut,  white  cedar,  cypress,  redwood,  or  locust  may  be  used. 

For  light  framing  is  needed  a  cheap,  light  wood,  as  free  as 
possible  from  structural  defects,  such  as  knots  and  shakes,  and  one 
which  can  be  readily  obtained  in  fairly  long,  straight  pieces.  Spruce, 
yellow  pine,  white  pine,  and  hemlock  all  satisfy  these  requirements 
fairly  well,  spruce  being  perhaps  a  little  better  than  the  others,  and 
more  popular. 

For  heavy  framing,  such  as  trusses,  girders,  and  posts,  a 
timber  is  needed  which  is  strong,  and  which  can  be  obtained  in 
large,  long  pieces.  Georgia  pine,  Oregon  pine,  and  white  oak  may 
all  be  used  for  such  work,  and  also  Norway  pine  and  Canadian 
red  pine.  White  oak  is  the  timber  which  was  always  used  for 
framing  in  the  old  days,  but  is  too  expensive  to  be  used  with  profit 
for  such  work  now.  The  timber  most  commonly  used  today  is  the 
Georgia  pine. 

A  wood  which  can  be  easily  worked  and  which  will  also  be 
able  to  withstand  the  deteriorating  effects  of  the  weather  is  in  demand 
for  the  outside  finish.  White  pine  is  usually  selected  for  this  purpose, 
although  cypress  and  redwood  are  also  suitable  and  are  used  to 
some  extent.  The  same  woods  are  used  for  shingles,  clapboards, 
and  siding,  with  the  addition  of  cedar  and  spruce  for  shingles,  and 
Oregon  pine  and  spruce  for  siding. 

For  the  interior  finish  is  chosen  a  wood  which  will  give  a  pleasing 
appearance  when  finished  and  which  will  take  a  high  polish,  while 
for  floors,  hardness,  and  resistance  to  wear  are  the  additional  require- 
ments. For  floors,  oak,  hard  pine,  maple,  and  birch  are  good,  while 
for  the  remainder  of  the  interior  finish  white  pine,  cypress,  and  red- 


27 


18  CARPENTRY 

wood  for  painting,  or  any  of  the  hard  woods  such  as  ash,  cherry, 
oak,  walnut,  or  mahogany,  may  be  selected. 

Some  of  the  more  important  varieties  of  timber  used  in  Car- 
pentry will  now  be  mentioned,  and  a  brief  description  of  each  variety 
will  be  given  in  order  to  convey  an  idea  of  their  characteristics  and 
the  part  of  the  world  from  which  they  come. 

Conifers  or  Needle=Leaved  Trees.  These  trees  are  found 
mostly  in  the  North,  where  they  form  large  forests  from  which  are 
taken  the  large  quantities  of  timber  of  this  kind  used  every  year. 
The  wood  is  very  popular  for  use  in  rough  building  construction 
or  for  finished  work  which  is  to  be  painted,  as  it  is  very  regular  in 
structure  and  consequently  easy  to  work;  it  can  be  obtained  in  large, 
long,  straight  pieces,  and  is  light  and  strong.  The  demand  for 
woods  of  this  kind  is  considerably  in  excess  of  the  demand  for  the 
harder  woods.  The  trees  are  mostly  but  not  all  evergreen,  and 
bear  needles  instead  of  leaves,  together  with  the  cones,  from  which 
they  are  called  conifers. 

Cedar.  The  wood  known  as  cedar  has  long  been  used  in  con- 
struction, as  is  illustrated  by  the  references  in  the  Bible  to  the  "Cedars 
of  Lebanon"  from  which  the  Temple  of  Solomon  was  constructed. 
The  wood  in  use  at  the  present  day  called  cedar  is,  of  course,  not  of 
exactly  the  same  species  as  was  that  used  in  the  famous  temple, 
but  it  is  of  the  same  family  and  possesses  the  same  general  character- 
istics. There  are  two  kinds,  the  red  cedar,  and  the  white  cedar, 
which  differ  from  each  other  principally  in  color,  the  white  cedar 
being  grayish  brown,  while  the  red  cedar  is  reddish  brown. 

There  are  several  different  kinds  of  white  cedar  in  use,  of  which 
one  is  known  as  the  canoe  cedar.  The  wood  is  not  very  strong, 
but  is  light  and  soft,  possessing  considerable  stiffness  and  a  fine 
texture.  In  color  it  is  as  mentioned  above,  grayish  brown,  the 
sapwood  being,  however,  of  a  lighter  color  than  the  heartwood.  It 
seasons  quickly,  is  remarkably  durable,  and  does  not  shrink  or  check 
to  any  great  extent.  The  wood  is  used  in  building  construction, 
principally  for  shingles,  for  which  purpose  its  durability  in  exposed 
positions  makes  it  especially  valuable.  It  is  also  used  for  posts 
and  ties. 

The  trees  are  usually  scattered  among  others  of  different  kinds, 
forming  occasionally,  however,  forests  of  considerable  size.    They  are 


28 


CARPENTRY  19 

to  be  found  all  through  the  northern  part  of  the  United  States  and  in 
Canada,  also  on  the  Pacific  Coast  in  California,  Oregon,  and  Wash- 
ington. They  also  grow  to  some  extent  in  the  southern  states. 
Some  of  the  trees  are  of  small  or  medium  size,  while  others  are  very 
large,  especially  the  canoe  cedar  of  the  Northwest. 

In  addition  to  the  white  cedars,  there  are  the  red  cedars,  which 
are  similar  to  the  white  cedars  but  differ  from  them  slightly  in 
the  color  of  the  wood,  which  is  reddish  brown  instead  of  grayish 
brown.  The  red  cedars  are  also  of  somewhat  finer  texture  than 
the  white  cedars.  Red  cedar  is  used  but  little  in  building  con- 
struction, but  is  used  extensively  in  cabinet  work  for  chests  and 
closets  which  this  wood  is  supposed  to  render  proof  against  moths. 
The  wood  is  also  used  for  the  making  of  lead  pencils  and  for  cigar 
boxes,  large  quantities  of  timber  being  used  for  these  purposes 
every  year. 

Cedar  trees  are  sometimes  subject  to  a  disease  similar  to  wet 
rot,  which  attacks  the  growing  tree.  This  disease  does  not,  how- 
ever, render  them  unfit  for  use  in  every  case,  as  the  disease  often 
disappears  as  soon  as  the  tree  has  been  cut  down,  and  trees  have 
been  known  to  yield  timber  which  has  endured  for  long  periods, 
although  the  living  tree  itself  was  diseased. 

Redwood.  There  is  a  wood  which  greatly  resembles  good  red 
cedar  and  which  is  found  only  in  the  State  of  California.  One 
species  of  this  tree  grows  to  an  enormous  size  and  is  famous  on  this 
account,  but  this  is  not  the  one  which  yields  the  lumber  used  for 
building  purposes,  which  is  known  as  the  common  redwood.  The 
wood  is  used  for  cheap  interior  finish  and  for  shingles,  also  for  use 
in  heavy  construction,  thus  serving  nearly  the  same  purposes  as 
does  hard  pine  in  the  eastern  states.  Redwood  is  light,  and  not 
very  strong,  but  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  remarkably  durable,  resisting 
fire  to  a  considerable  extent.  It  is  easy  to  work  and  will  take  a 
polish  so  that  it  is  valuable  for  inside  finish,  and  some  of  the  wood 
has  a  wavy  grain  which  adds  greatly  to  its  finished  appearance. 
This  wood  is  known  as  "curly"  redwood.  In  color  the  heartwood  is 
red,  but  the  sapwood  is  nearly  white,  with  the  wood  between  them 
varying  in  color  and  averaging  a  rich  reddish  brown.  The  grain  is 
usually  straight  and  the  wood  is  solid  and  dense  in  structure  but 
the  grain  is  more  or  less  coarse  in  appearance. 


29 


20  CARPENTRY 

Cypress.  This  is  a  wood  which  is  somewhat  similar  to  white 
cedar  in  appearance,  and  which  grows  in  quantities  only  in  the 
southern  states,  where  it  may  be  seen  in  great  swamps  with  the 
roots  very  often  partially  exposed.  Although  there  are  a  great 
many  varieties,  they  are  similar  in  their  general  characteristics, 
differing  only  in  quality.  "Gulf  Cypress,"  growing  near  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico,  is  the  best.  "Bald  Cypress,"  is  a  name  which  has  been 
applied  to  these  trees  on  account  of  the  fact  that  they  show  no  leaves 
in  winter  and  this  gives  them  a  peculiar  appearance.  When  the  wood 
is  dark  in  color  it  is  called  "Black  Cypress,"  and  in  some  localities 
yellow  and  red  cypress  are  spoken  of.  The  growing  trees  are  often 
affected  by  a  disease  which  leaves  the  wood  full  of  small  holes  which 
look  as  though  they  might  have  been  made  by  driving  pegs  into 
the  wood  and  then  withdrawing  them.  Cypress  wood  affected  in 
this  way  is  called  "peggy." 

Hemlock.  There  are  two  varieties  of  hemlock,  one  found  in 
the  northern  states,  from  Maine  to  Minnesota,  and  along  the  Alle- 
ghenies  southward  to  Georgia  and  Alabama,  while  the  other  is  found 
in  the  west  from  Washington  to  California  and  eastward  to  Montana. 
The  eastern  tree  is  smaller  than  the  western  and  its  wood  is  lighter, 
softer,  and  generally  inferior.  The  trees  are  evergreen  and  bear 
cones,  with  flat,  blunt  needles,  and  they  usually  grow  alone  or  in 
small  groups  in  the  midst  of  forests  of  other  trees. 

The  timber  is  of  a  light,  reddish-gray  color,  fairly  durable, 
but  shrinks  and  checks  badly,  and  is  coarse,  brittle,  and  usually 
cross  grained.  It  is  hard  to  work  but  will  hold  nails  very  well. 
The  wood  is  sometimes  used  for  cheap  framing,  and  has  been  used 
for  cheap  interior  finish,  but  it  is  so  liable  to  imperfections,  such  as 
windshakes  and  starshakes,  that  it  is  not  the  best  wood  to  use  for 
these  purposes,  although  the  increasing  cost  of  the  better  woods  will 
no  doubt  force  it  into  more  general  use.  Hemlock  is  most  frequently 
used  for  rough  boarding  and  sheathing. 

Spruce.  Another  evergreen  and  cone-bearing  tree  which  lur- 
nishes  great  quantities  of  lumber  to  the  market  every  year  is  the 
spruce.  There  are  three  kinds  of  spruce,  white,  black,  and  red,  of 
which  the  white  spruce  and  the  red  spruce  are  the  varieties  com- 
monly found  on  the  market.  The  white  spruce  is  scattered  through- 
out all  of  the  northern  states,  along  the  streams  and  lakes,  the  largest 


30 


CARPENTRY  21 

varieties  being  found  in  Montana.  The  black  spruce  is  found  in 
Canada  and  in  some  of  the  northern  states.  It  is  distinguished 
from  the  other  varieties  by  its  leaves  and  bark  only,  the  foliage 
being  much  darker  in  color  than  that  of  the  white  spruce,  while 
the  cones  remain  in  place  for  several  years,  a  much  longer  time  than 
do  those  of  the  white  spruce.  The  red  spruce  is  sometimes  known 
as  Newfoundland  red  pine  and  is  found  in  the  northeastern  part  of 
North  America.  It  is  used  very  extensively  in  northern  New  Eng- 
land where  it  serves  as  a  substitute  for  soft  pine,  and  large  quantities 
of  it  are  used  up  every  year  for  pulp  wood. 

The  leaves  of  the  spruce  are  single  and  have  sharp  points  at 
the  ends.  They  are  short  and  four-sided  and  are  arranged  on  the 
stem  so  as  to  point  in  all  directions.  The  cones  hang  downward, 
while  those  of  the  fir  trees  point  upward. 

Spruce  trees  have  many  natural  enemies  and  numbers  of  the 
trees  are  destroyed  before  they  reach  the  market.  Large  quantities 
of  fallen  tree  trunks  are  to  be  found  in  the  forests,  blown  down  by 
the  wind  alone  during  heavy  wind  storms,  or  so  weakened  by  the 
ravages  of  insects  that  they  have  fallen  from  their  own  weight. 
There  is  a  beetle  which  attacks  these  trees  especially,  and  which 
causes  great  damage,  while  very  often  the  same  trees  are  attacked 
by  various  kinds  of  fungous  growths. 

Spruce  timber  is  of  a  light  color,  very  nearly  white  except  the 
heartwood  which  has  a  reddish  tinge.  It  is  very  dense  and  compact 
in  structure  and  straight  grained.  The  wood  is  light  and  soft,  fairly 
strong  for  a  soft  wood,  but  not  very  durable  when  exposed.  It  is 
very  resonant  and  is  frequently  used  for  sounding  boards  on  this 
account.  It  can  not  be  obtained  in  large  sizes,  but  it  is  considered 
by  many  to  be  the  best  framing  timber  available,  except  the  pines. 

Pine.  This  is  the  timber  which  has  been  used  in  building  con- 
struction to  a  greater  extent  than  any  other  except  perhaps  oak. 
It  is  peculiarly  fitted  for  the  purpose  as  it  has  grown  in  great  abund- 
ance all  over  the  United  States  and  possesses  all  of  the  most  desirable 
characteristics  of  a  good  building  material,  being  strong,  but  at  the 
same  time  light  in  weight  and  easily  worked,  elastic,  and  very  dur- 
able. The  tree  is  almost  always  a  large  one  with  branches  starting 
at  a  considerable  distance  from  the  ground.  It  has  a  smooth,  straight 
trunk,  evergreen,  needle-shaped  leaves,  of  varying  length,  and  cones. 


SI 


22  CARPENTRY 

There  are  two  distinct  classes  of  pines  used  in  building  work, 
the  soft  and  the  hard  pines,  both  of  which  are  found  in  large  quanti- 
ties. The  softer  varieties  are  used  for  outside  finish  of  all  sorts, 
and  the  harder  varieties  for  heavy  framing  and  for  flooring.  The 
ease  with  which  the  soft-pine  lumber  can  be  cut  and  shipped  to  the 
market,  makes  it  the  most  popular  wood  in  use  at  the  present  time. 
It  is  of  uniform  texture  and  nails  without  splitting,  seasons  very 
well,  and  does  not  shrink  so  much  as  the  harder  pines,  will  take 
paint  and  is  very  durable.  The  wood  is  white  in  color,  straight 
grained,  and  has  few  knots.  The  hard  pines  furnish  the  strongest 
timber  in  use  for  building,  with  the  exception  of  oak,  which  is  now 
almost  too  expensive  to  be  used  for  heavy  framing.  The  pieces  can 
be  obtained  in  large  sizes  and  great  lengths  and  the  wood  is  very 
hard,  heavy,  and  durable,  at  the  same  time  being  tough.  In  color 
it  is  yellow  or  orange,  the  sapwood  being  of  lighter  color  than  the 
heartwood. 

There  are  many  different  kinds  of  pines,  which  are  recognized 
in  different  parts  of  the  country  under  various  names,  but  there  are 
five  general  classes  into  which  the  species  is  commonly  divided, 
though  the  same  timber  may  be  called  by  different  names  in  two 
different  localities,  as  will  be  seen. 

(1)  The  term  "hard  pine"  is  used  to  designate  any  pine  which 
is  not  white  pine,  a  classification  which  is  very  general,  though  it 
is  often  seen  in  works  on  Carpentry  and  in  specifications. 

(2)  "White  pine,"  "soft  pine,"  and  "pumpkin  pine,"  are 
terms  which  are  used  in  the  eastern  states  for  the  timber  from  the 
white-pine  tree,  while  on  the  Pacific  Coast  the  same  terms  refer  to 
the  wood  of  the  sugar  pine. 

(3)  The  name  "yellow  pine,"  when  used  in  the  northeastern 
part  of  the  country,  applies  almost  always  to  the  pitch  pine  or  to 
one  of  the  southern  pines,  but  in  the  West  it  refers  to  the  bull  pine. 

(4)  "Georgia  pine"  or  "longleaf  yellow  pine,"  is  a  term  used 
to  distinguish  the  southern  hard  pine  which  grows  in  the  coast  region 
from  North  Carolina  to  Texas,  and  which  furnishes  the  strongest 
pine  lumber  on  the  market. 

(5)  "Pitch  pine"  may  refer  to  any  of  the  southern  pines,  or  to 
pitch  pine  proper,  which  is  found  along  the  coast  from  New  York 
to  Georgia  and  among  the  mountains  of  Kentucky. 


82 


CARPENTRY  23 

Of  the  soft  pines  there  are  two  kinds,  the  white  pine  and  the 
sugar  pine,  the  latter  being  a  western  tree  found  in  Oregon  and 
Cahfornia,  while  the  former  is  found  in  all  the  northern  states  from 
Maine  to  Minnesota.  There  is  also  a  smaller  species  of  white  pine 
found  along  the  Rocky  Mountain  slopes  from  Montana  to  New 
Mexico. 

There  are  ten  different  varieties  of  hard  pine,  of  which,  however, 
only  five  are  of  practical  importance  in  the  building  industry.  These 
are  the  "long-leaf  southern  pine,"  the  "short-leaf  southern  pine," 
the  "yellow  pine,"  the  "loblolly  pine,"  and  the  "Norway  pine." 

The  long-leaf  pine,  also  known  as  the  "Georgia  pine"  and  the 
"long  straw  pine,"  is  a  large  tree  which  forms  extensive  forests  in 
the  coast  region  from  North  Carolina  to  Texas.  It  yields  very 
hard,  strong  timber,  which  can  be  obtained  in  long,  straight  pieces 
of  very  large  size. 

The  loblolly  pine  is  also  a  large  tree  but  has  more  sapwood 
than  the  long-leaf  pine,  and  is  coarser,  lighter,  and  softer.  It  is 
the  common  lumber  pine  from  Virginia  to  South  Carolina,  and  is 
found  as  well  in  Texas  and  Arkansas.  It  is  known  also  by  the  names 
of  "slash  pine,"  "old  field  pine,"  "rosemary  pine,"  "sap  pine,"  and 
"short  straw  pine,"  and  in  the  West  as  "Texas  pine." 

The  short-leaf  pine  is  much  like  the  loblolly  pine  and  is  the 
chief  lumber  tree  of  Missouri  and  Arkansas.  It  is  also  found  in 
North  Carolina  and  Texas. 

The  Norway  pine  is  a  Northern  tree  found  in  Canada  and  the 
northern  states.  It  never  forms  forests,  but  is  scattered  among  other 
trees,  and  forms  small  groves.  The  wood  is  fine  grained  and  of  a 
white  color  but  is  largely  sapwood  and  is  not  durable. 

Fir.  The  fir  tree  yields  timber  very  similar  to  spruce,  and 
is  often  mixed  in  with  spruce  in  the  market.  There  are  two  kinds 
of  fir  trees,  the  western  fir  tree  and  the  eastern  fir  tree,  the  first 
being  known  as  the  silver  fir  and  the  other  as  the  balsam  fir.  All 
of  the  firs  are  evergreen,  and  bear  cones  which  stand  erect  instead 
of  hanging  down.  The  wood  is  soft  and  not  strong,  being  of  a  much 
coarser  quality  than  ordinary  spruce.  It  can  be  used  in  building 
work  only  for  the  roughest  work  in  the  case  of  the  eastern  fir,  while 
the  western  fir  is  used  more  extensively  but  is  not  as  good  as  spruce. 

Tamarack.    This  is  a  wood  which  is  very  much  like  spruce  in 


33 


24  CARPENTRY 

structure,  but  is  hard  and  very  strong,  resembling  hard  pine  in  this 
respect.  The  tree  grows  in  the  northern  part  of  the  United  States 
and  Canada,  both  in  the  East  and  in  the  West,  and  also  in  Europe. 
Its  true  name  is  larch,  but  it  has  come  to  be  known  as  tamarack, 
tamarack  pine,  and  hackmatack.  In  the  East  the  tree  grows  in  wet 
places  called  tamarack  swamps,  but  the  tree  in  the  West  and  in 
Europe  thrives  best  in  dryer  soil,  and  grows  more  quickly  under 
these  conditions  than  in  a  swamp.  The  wood  is  used  mostly  for 
long  straight  timbers  such  as  posts,  poles,  and  quite  extensively  for 
piles.  It  has  also  been  used  a  great  deal  for  railroad  ties.  It  is 
supposed  to  be  very  durable,  and  is  well  suited  for  use  as  ties  or  as 
piles,  but  it  can  not  always  be  obtained  now.  It  has  never  been 
used  to  any  extent  as  sawn  lumber,  because  the  demand  for  the 
trunks  for  use  as  posts  and  poles  has  been  so  great  that  it  did  not 
pay  to  saw  them  up. 

Broad=Leaved  Trees.  Ash.  Ash  is  a  wood  which  is  frequently 
employed  for  interior  finishing  in  public  buildings,  such  as  school 
houses,  churches,  and  so  forth,  and  also  in  the  cheaper  classes  of 
dwelling  houses.  It  is  one  of  the  cheapest  of  hard  woods,  and  is 
used  when  it  is  desired  to  have  a  hard-wood  finish  and  when  the 
more  expensive  kinds  of  hard  wood,  such  as  oak,  can  not  be  afforded. 
The  wood  is  somewhat  like  oak  in  texture  and  appearance,  the 
difference  being  that  ash  is  coarser,  and  the  pith  rays  do  not  show. 
It  is  strong,  straight  grained,  and  tough,  comparatively  easy  to 
work,  elastic,  and  fairly  durable.  It  shrinks  moderately,  seasons 
with  little  injury,  and  will  take  a  good  polish.  The  trees  do  not 
grow  together  in  forests,  but  are  scattered.  They  grow  rapidly, 
and  attain  only  medium  height.  Of  the  six  different  species  found 
in  the  United  States,  only  two,  the  "white  ash,"  and  the  "black 
ash,"  are  used  extensively  in  building  work.  The  first  is  most 
common  in  the  basin  of  the  Ohio  River,  but  is  also  found  in  the 
North  from  Maine  to  Minnesota,  and  in  the  South,  in  Texas.  The 
black  ash  is  found  from  Maine  to  Minnesota,  and  southward  to 
Virginia  and  Arkansas.  There  is  very  little  difference  between  the 
two  species.  The  black  ash  is  also  known  as  the  "hoop  ash,"  and 
the  "ground  ash." 

Beech.  This  wood  is  not  used  to  any  great  extent  in  Carpentry 
except  in  Europe,  but  is  made  up  into  tool  handles,  shoe  lasts,  and 


34 


CARPENTRY  25 

so  forth,  and  is  also  used  in  wagon  making  and  ship  building.  The 
tree  grows  freely  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  United  States  and  Canada 
and  also  in  Europe.  There  are  a  number  of  different  species  and 
the  tree  is  sometimes  called  by  other  names  such  as  "ironwood,"  and 
"horn-beam."  The  wood  is  used  for  building  work  in  the  United 
States  only  occasionally  for  inside  finish  and  is  not  a  popular  wood. 
It  is  heavy,  hard,  and  strong,  but  of  coarse  texture  like  the  ash.  In 
color  it  is  light  brown,  or  white.  It  shrinks  and  checks  during  the 
process  of  drying  out,  and  is  not  durable  when  placed  in  contact 
with  the  ground.  It  works  fairly  well,  stands  well,  and  will  take 
a  good  polish. 

Birch.  Birch  is  a  very  handsome  wood  of  a  brown  or  red  color 
and  with  a  satiny  luster.  There  are  two  kinds,  the  red  birch  and 
the  white  birch,  but  they  are  both  taken  from  the  same  kind  of  tree, 
the  difference  being  that  the  red  birch  consists  of  more  and  older 
heartwood,  while  the  white  birch  is  the  sapwood  or  the  younger 
heartwood.  The  trees  are  of  medium  size  and  form  large  forests. 
They  are  found  throughout  the  eastern  part  of  the  United  States 
and  Canada,  and  in  the  extreme  north.  The  distinguishing  feature 
of  the  tree  is  the  bark,  which  is  famous  because  of  its  beauty  and 
its  usefulness  for  a  number  of  purposes.  This  bark  is  white  in  color 
with  long  dashes  of  a  darker  color  running  around  the  tree  trunk 
in  a  horizontal  direction.  It  is  water-tight  and  pliable,  which  made 
it  useful  to  the  Indians  for  the  covering  of  their  canoes.  It  was  also 
used  in  ancient  times,  before  the  manufacture  of  paper,  as  a  material 
to  write  upon.  The  bark  has  been  used  for  a  number  of  other  pur- 
poses. The  wood  is  used  quite  extensively  for  inside  finish  and 
floors,  and  to  imitate  cherry  and  mahogany,  as  it  has  a  grain  which 
is  very  similar  to  the  grain  of  these  woods.  It  takes  a  good  polish, 
works  easily,  and  does  not  warp  after  it  is  in  place,  but  it  is  not 
durable  when  exposed  to  the  weather. 

Butternut.  Butternut  is  really  a  branch  of  the  family  of  wal- 
nuts, and  differs  from  them  only  slightly.  The  wood  is  used  to 
some  extent  for  inside  finish,  and  is  cheaper  than  most  of  the  other 
hard  woods.  It  is  light,  but  not  strong,  and  is  fairly  soft.  In  color 
it  is  light  brown.  The  trees,  of  medium  size,  are  found  in  the  eastern 
states  from  Maine  to  Georgia. 

Cherry.     Cherry  is  a  wood  which  is  frequently  used  as  a  finishing 


85 


26  CARPENTRY 

wood  for  the  interior  of  dwellings  and  of  cars  and  steamers,  but, 
owing  to  the  fact  that  it  can  be  obtained  only  in  narrow  boards,  it 
is  most  suitable  for  molded  work,  and  work  which  is  much  cut  up. 
The  wood  is  heavy,  hard,  strong,  and  of  fine  texture.  The  heartwood 
is  of  a  reddish  brown  color,  while  the  sapwood  is  yellowish  white. 
It  is  very  handsome  and  takes  a  good  polish,  works  easily,  and  stands 
well.  It  shrinks  considerably,  however,  in  drying.  The  timber  is 
cut  from  the  wild  black  cherry  tree,  not  from  the  cultivated  cherry 
tree.  This  tree  is  of  medium  size,  and  is  found  scattered  among 
the  other  broad-leaved  trees  along  the  western  slopes  of  the  Alle- 
ghenies,  and  as  far  west  as  Texas.  The  fruit  of  the  wild  cherry 
is  of  a  dark  purple  color,  about  the  size  of  a  large  pea.  When  ripe 
it  tastes  slightly  bitter.  The  bark  of  the  tree  also  tastes  bitter. 
Cherry  is  often  stained  to  resemble  mahogany,  and  sometimes  birch 
is  stained  to  resemble  cherry. 

Chestnut.  The  grain  of  chestnut  somewhat  resembles  oak  but 
it  is  much  softer  and  coarser  in  texture  and  does  not  show  the 
medullary  rays  which  form  the  distinguishing  feature  of  oak.  Chest- 
nut is  used  for  cabinet  work,  for  interior  finishing,  and  sometimes 
for  heavy  construction.  It  is  light,  fairly  soft,  but  not  strong.  The 
wood  has  a  rather  coarse  texture,  works  easily  and  stands  well,  but 
shrinks  and  checks  in  drying.  It  is  very  durable  and  can  be  safely 
used  in  exposed  positions.  The  tree  grows  in  the  region  of  the 
AUeghenies,  from  Maine  to  Michigan,  and  southward  to  Alabama. 
The  wood  is  dark  brown  in  color,  with  the  sapwood  a  little  lighter. 

Elm.  There  are  five  species  of  elm  trees  in  the  United  States, 
scattered  throughout  the  eastern  and  central  states.  The  trees  are 
usually  large  and  of  rapid  growth,  and  do  not  form  forests.  The 
timber  is  hard  and  tough,  frequently  cross-grained,  hard  to  work, 
and  shrinks  and  checks  in  drying.  The  wood  has  not  been  used 
very  extensively  in  building,  but  has  a  beautiful  figured  grain,  can 
take  a  high  polish,  and  is  well  adapted  to  staining.  The  texture  is 
coarse  to  fine,  and  the  color  is  brown  with  shades  of  gray  and  red. 

Gum.  The  wood  of  the  gum  tree  has  been  used  extensively 
for  cabinet  work,  furniture,  and  interior  finish.  It  is  of  fine  texture 
and  handsome  appearance,  heavy,  fairly  soft,  yet  strong.  Its  color 
is  reddish  brown.  The  wood  warps  and  checks  badly,  is  not  durable 
when  exposed,  and  is  hard  to  work.     It  has  a  close  grain,  and  some 


36 


CARPENTRY  27 

pieces  are  so  regular  that  they  have  been  stained  to  imitate  black 
walnut  and  used  as  veneers  for  the  manufacture  of  furniture  and 
cabinet  work.  The  species  of  gum  tree,  which  yields  timber  of  use 
in  carpentry,  is  known  as  the  sweet  gum.  It  is  of  medium  size,  with 
a  straight  trunk.  The  trees  do  not  form  forests,  though  they  are 
quite  abundant  east  of  the  Mississippi  River.  The  leaves  have  five 
lobes  which  are  long  and  pointed,  thus  giving  them  a  starlike  appear- 
ance. The  bark  is  very  rough,  and  its  resemblance  in  appearance 
to  the  skin  of  an  alligator  has  caused  the  wood  to  be  called  "Alligator 
Wood"  in  some  localities. 

Maple.  Almost  all  of  the  maple  used  in  building  work  comes 
from  the  hard  sugar  maple,  which  is  most  abundant  in  the  region  of 
the  Great  Lakes,  but  which  is  also  found  from  Maine  to  Minnesota 
and  southward  to  Florida.  The  trees  are  of  medium  to  large  size 
and  form  quite  considerable  forests.  They  are  so  abundant  in 
Canada  that  the  maple  is  the  national  tree,  and  the  national  emblem 
is  a  maple  leaf.  The  wood  when  finished  presents  a  very  pleasing 
appearance,  and  ranks  as  one  of  the  best  of  the  hard  woods  in  this 
respect.  It  is  heavy  and  strong,  of  fine  texture,  and  often  has  a  fine 
wavy  grain  which  gives  the  effect  known  as  "curly."  Other  defects 
which  add  to  the  beauty  of  the  grain  occur  in  what  is  called  "blister" 
and  "bird's-eye"  maple.  These  defects  are  the  result  of  twisting  of 
the  fibers  which  make  up  the  woody  structure  of  the  tree,  and  the 
maples  seem  to  show  them  more  frequently  than  any  of  the  other 
trees,  though  they  sometimes  are  to  be  found  in  birch  and  various 
other  woods.  The  color  of  the  sapwood  is  a  creamy  white  while 
the  heartwood  is  tinged  with  brown.  The  lumber  shrinks  moder- 
ately, stands  well,  is  easy  to  work,  and  is  tough,  but  not  very  durable 
when  subjected  to  exposure.  The  finished  wood  takes  an  excellent 
polish.  It  is  most  commonly  employed  for  floors,  and  in  other  posi- 
tions where  a  good  wearing  surface  is  required,  as  well  as  for  ceiling 
and  paneling,  and  other  interior  finish, 

OaJc.  This  is  a  wood  which  has  probably  been  used  more  than 
any  other  kind  in  all  classes  of  structures.  In  ancient  times  it  was 
about  the  only  wood  in  use  both  for  the  building  of  houses  and  for 
shipbuilding.  Since  the  softer  woods  have  become  popular  and  oak 
has  become  somewhat  less  easy  to  get,  its  use  has  diminished  to 
some  extent,  but  it  is  still  one  of  the  most  useful  of  woods.     The  trees 


37 


28  CARPENTRY 

grow  freely  all  over  the  northern  parts  of  Europe  and  America, 
extending  as  far  south  as  the  Equator,  and  have  been  particularly 
plentiful  in  the  British  Isles.  There  are  about  twenty  different  kinds 
of  oaks  to  be  found  in  various  parts  of  the  United  States  and  Canada, 
but  there  are  three  distinctly  different  species,  which  are  sold  sepa- 
rately. These  are  the  "white  oak,"  the  "red  oak,"  and  the  "live  oak." 
The  red  oak  is  usually  more  porous,  less  durable,  and  of  coarser  tex- 
ture than  the  white  oak  or  the  live  oak.  The  trees  are  of  medium 
size  and  form  a  large  proportion  of  all  the  broad-leaved  forests.  Live 
oak  was  once  very  extensively  used,  but  has  become  scarce  and  is 
now  expensive.  Both  the  red  oak  and  the  white  oak  are  used  for 
inside  finishing,  but  they  are  liable  to  shrink  and  crack  and  must, 
therefore,  be  thoroughly  seasoned.  They  are  of  slightly  different 
color,  the  white  oak  having  a  straw  color  while  the  red  oak  has  a  red- 
dish tinge,  so  that  they  can  not  be  used  together  where  the  work  is 
to  be  finished  by  polishing.  Oak  is  always  best  if  quarter-sawed  and 
it  then  shows  what  is  known  as  the  "silver  grain."  This  is  the  result 
of  the  cutting  of  the  medullary  rays,  and  appears  on  the  finished 
wood  as  a  succession  of  splashes  or  blotches  which  are  of  lighter  color 
than  the  rest  of  the  wood  and  which  glisten  in  the  light. 

Poplar.  This  wood  is  also  known  in  the  market  as  "white 
wood,"  "tulip  wood,"  and  sometimes  as  "basswood."  The  poplar, 
the  whitewood  or  tulip  tree,  and  the  basswood  are,  however,  three 
distinct  kinds  of  trees,  but  the  wood  of  each  so  nearly  resembles  that 
of  the  others  as  to  be  indistinguishable  in  the  market  and  so  it  is  sold 
under  any  one  of  these  various  names.  The  lumber  yielded  by  the 
tulip  tree  and  known  commercially  as  whitewood  is  the  best.  This 
tree  is  a  native  of  North  America  and  grows  freely  all  over  the  United 
States  and  Canada.  There  are  a  number  of  different  varieties  grow- 
ing in  various  parts  of  the  country.  It  is  sometimes  called  "yellow 
poplar."  The  poplar  or  cottonwood  is  most  common  in  the  region 
of  the  Ohio  basin,  and  grows  in  the  western  desert  regions  along  the 
water  courses.  The  tree  is  a  large  one  and  usually  grows  in  small 
groups,  not  forming  extensive  forests.  The  basswood  tree,  also 
known  as  the  linden,  grows  all  over  the  eastern  part  of  the  United 
States  and  Canada,  and  in  the  middle  west.  The  wood  of  all  these 
trees  is  light,  soft,  free  from  knots,  and  of  fine  texture.  In  color  it 
is  white,  or  yellowish  white,  and  frequently  has  a  satiny  luster.     It 


38 


CARPENTRY  29 

can  be  so  finished  as  to  retain  its  natural  appearance,  but  it  is  often 
stained  to  imitate  some  of  the  more  costly  woods,  such  as  cherry. 
It  is  used  extensively  for  cheap  inside  finish  and  fittings,  such  as 
shelving,  and  sometimes  for  doors,  but  it  warps  badly  if  it  is  not 
thoroughly  seasoned,  and  will  not  stand  exposure. 

Sycamore.  Sycamore  is  frequently  used  for  finishing,  and  is  a 
very  handsome  wood.  It  is  heavy,  hard,  strong,  of  coarse  texture, 
and  is  usually  cross  grained.  It  is  hard  to  work,  and  shrinks,  warps, 
and  checks  considerably.  The  tree  is  of  large  size  and  rapid  growth, 
found  in  all  parts  of  the  eastern  United  States,  and  is  most  common 
along  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi  rivers. 

Walnut  There  are  a  number  of  different  kinds  of  walnut  trees, 
of  which  only  one  or  two,  however,  yield  timber  which  is  suitable  for 
use  in  building  construction.  The  best  known  trees  are  the  "English 
walnut,"  the  "black  walnut,"  the  "white  walnut"  or  "butternut," 
and  the  "Circassian  walnut."  The  English  walnut  grows  in  Europe, 
and  is  not  very  popular  as  a  finishing  wood,  while  it  is  too  expensive 
to  be  used  for  rough  lumber.  Formerly  great  quantities  of  it  were  used 
in  the  manufacture  of  gun  stocks,  so  much  so  as  to  create  a  demand 
for  the  entire  supply.  The  black  walnut  is  a  native  of  North  America, 
and  until  about  thirty  years  ago  it  was  used  very  extensively  in  the 
United  States  for  interior  finish  and  furniture,  taking  the  place  of 
oak  for  these  purposes.  During  recent  years,  however,  the  wood 
has  ceased  to  be  popular,  and  is  now  very  seldom  used.  This  is 
partly  due  to  the  scarcity  and  consequent  high  price  of  the  timber. 
It  is  a  heavy  hard  wood  of  coarse  texture  and  of  a  rich  dark-brown 
color.  Very  handsome  pieces  having  a  beautiful  figure  may  be 
selected  for  veneers  for  furniture  and  cabinet  work.  Although  the 
wood  shrinks  somewhat  in  drying,  it  works  easily,  stands  well,  and 
will  take  a  good  polish.  The  tree  is  large  and  of  rapid  growth.  It 
was  formerly  very  abundant  in  the  Allegheny  region,  and  was  found 
from  New  England  to  Texas  and  from  Michigan  to  Florida.  White 
walnut,  or  butternut,  is  somewhat  like  black  walnut  wood,  but  is 
of  a  lighter  color  and  is  not  so  pleasing  when  finished.  Circassian 
walnut  is  beautifully  figured,  and  is  sometimes  used  for  piano  cases, 
and  costly  cabinet  work,  but  it  is  very  scarce  and  very  expensive. 

Laurel.  The  tree  of  this  name  which  is  most  extensively  used 
in  building  work  is  the  California  laurel,  which  grows  on  the  Pacific 


89 


30  CARPENTRY 

Coast  and  is  seldom  seen  used  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  country. 
The  wood  is  hard,  heavy,  and  strong,  Hght  brown  in  color,  and  of 
close  grain.  The  sapwood  is  considerably  lighter  in  color  than  the 
heartwood.  The  wood  takes  a  very  good  polish  and  is  quite  gener- 
erally  used  on  the  Pacific  Coast  for  cabinet  work  and  interior  finish- 
ing. 

Osage  Orange.  This  is  a  southern  wood,  growing  in  the  Gulf 
States  and  seldom  seen  in  the  North.  The  tree  is  of  medium  size, 
bears  fruit  somewhat  resembling  an  orange,  and  is  protected  by 
large  thorns.  The  wood  ranges  in  color  from  bright  yellow  or  orange 
to  brown  and  is  hard  and  strong,  though  at  the  same  time  very  flex- 
ible. It  is  very  durable  in  damp  places,  and  in  positions  where  it 
comes  in  contact  with  the  earth.  The  wood  shrinks  somewhat,  and 
checks,  but  will  take  a  good  polish,  and  it  is,  therefore,  used  to  some 
extent  for  interior  finish,  but  its  principal  use  is  for  poles  and  posts, 
piles,  ties,  etc. 

Locust.  The  locust  is  a  tree  which  yields  wood  valuable  in  con- 
struction on  account  of  its  great  durability  in  exposed  positions. 
The  eastern  tree  is  called  the  black  locust,  while  the  tree  in  the  west- 
ern states  is  known  as  the  mesquite.  There  is  a  slight  difference 
between  the  two  trees,  but  they  belong  to  the  same  family.  The 
wood  is  hard,  heavy,  and  strong,  reddish  brown  in  color,  and  close- 
grained.  It  was  largely  used  in  the  past  for  long  wood  pegs  called 
tree-nails  and  is  now  used  wherever  great  durability  is  required. 

Holly.  This  wood  is  very  highly  prized  for  use  in  inlaid  work, 
both  on  account  of  its  beautiful  even  grain,  and  on  account  of  its 
clear  white  color.  The  American  tree  grows  in  all  the  eastern  states 
where  it  attains  to  medium  size.  It  is  characterized  by  its  ever- 
green foliage  and  its  red  berries.  The  wood  is, cream  white  in  color, 
and  moderately  strong.  It  is  easily  worked,  but  is  not  durable  and 
can  not  be  exposed. 

Imported  Timber.  Besides  the  woods  which  grow  in  the  United 
States,  a  number  of  others  are  brought  in  from  foreign  lands  for  use 
in  the  best  grade  of  public  buildings  and  private  residences.  The 
most  popular  of  these  are  the  mahogany,  rosewood,  satinwood, 
French  burl,  and  Circassian  walnut. 

Mahogany  comes  from  Cuba  and  Mexico,  and  formerly  was 
obtained  also  from  Santo  Domingo  and  Honduras.     Other  kinds  of 


46 


CARPENTRY  31 

so-called  mahogany  are  also  obtained  from  Africa  and  India,  and 
some  come  from  South  America.  The  wood  is  generally  imported 
in  the  rough  log  and  cut  up  by  the  purchasers  as  it  is  required.  It 
is  easy  to  work,  will  take  an  excellent  polish,  and  stays  in  place  very 
well  if  it  is  properly  seasoned.  The  color  varies  from  very  light  to 
deep  red,  which  becomes  darker  and  richer  with  age.  There  is  also 
what  is  called  white  mahogany,  which  is  golden  yellow  in  color.  The 
wood  is  very  costly  and  can  only  be  used  for  the  best  work.  Gener- 
ally it  is  used  in  the  form  of  veneers. 

Satinwood  comes  from  both  the  East  and  the  West  Indies.  It 
is  hard  and  strong  and  very  durable,  but  brittle  and  hard  to  work. 
It  is  so  costly  as  not  to  be  used  for  anything  but  the  finest  cabinet 
work,  for  which  it  is  valued  on  account  of  its  color,  which  is  very  light 
yellow,  and  its  satiny  luster.     It  takes  a  very  good  polish. 

French  hurl  comes  from  Persia,  and  Circassian  walnut  from  near 
the  Black  Sea.  Both  of  these  woods  are  very  expensive  and  can  be 
used  on  that  account  only  in  veneers  and  only  for  the  best  work. 

GENERAL  CHARACTERISTICS  OF  TIMBER 

In  speaking  of  wood  we  are  accustomed  to  use  certain  words  to 
express  our  idea  of  its  mechanical  properties,  or  of  its  probable  behav- 
ior under  certain  conditions.  Thus  we  say  that  a  wood  is  hard,  or 
tough,  or  brittle,  or  flexible,  and  frequently  we  use  these  terms  with- 
out having  a  clear  understanding  of  just  what  they  mean.  A  very 
brief  discussion  of  some  of  these  properties  or  characteristics  of  lum- 
ber will  now  be  given  in  order  that  we  may  see  what  peculiarities  of 
structure  or  of  growth  cause  them. 

Hardness.  If  a  block  of  wood  is  struck  with  a  hammer  when 
lying  on  a  bench,  the  hammer-head  will  make  an  impression  or  dent 
in  the  wood,  which  will  be  deeper  or  shallower  according  as  the  wood 
is  soft  or  hard.  A  wood  is  said  to  be  very  hard  when  it  requires  a 
pressure  of  about  3,000  pounds  per  square  inch  to  make  an  impres- 
sion one-twentieth  of  an  inch  deep.  A  hard  wood  requires  only 
about  2,500  pounds  to  produce  the  same  effecto  Fairly  hard  wood 
will  be  indented  by  a  pressure  of  1,500  pounds,  and  soft  woods  require 
even  less.  Maple,  oak,  elm,  and  hickory  are  very  hard;  ash,  cherry, 
birch,  and  walnut  are  hard;  the  best  qualities  of  pine  and  spruce  are 
fairly  hard,  and  hemlock,  poplar,  redwood,  and  butternut  are  soft. 


41 


32  CARPENTRY 

Toughness.  "Toughness"  is  a  word  which  is  often  used  in  rela- 
tion to  timber,  and  impUes  both  strength  and  pHabihty,  such  as  is 
found  in  the  wood  of  the  elm  and  the  hickory.  Such  timber  will 
withstand  the  effect  of  jars  and  shocks  which  would  cause  other 
woods  like  pine  to  be  shattered. 

Flexibility.  Timber  is  said  to  be  flexible  when  it  bends  before 
breaking  instead  of  breaking  off  short,  or,  in  other  words,  a  flexible 
wood  is  the  opposite  of  one  which  is  brittle.  The  harder  woods, 
taken  from  the  broad-leaved  trees,  are  usually  more  flexible  than 
the  softer  woods,  taken  from  the  cone-bearing  trees.  The  wood  of 
the  main  tree  trunk  is  more  flexible  than  that  of  the  limbs  and 
branches,  and  moist  timber  is  more  flexible  than  dry  wood.  Hickory 
is  one  of  the  most  flexible  woods. 

Cleavage.  Most  woods  split  very  easily  along  the  grain,  espe- 
cially when  the  arrangement  of  the  fibers  is  simple,  as  in  the  conifers. 
In  splitting  with  an  axe,  the  axe-head  acts  as  a  wedge  and  forces  the 
fibers  apart,  so  that  usually  the  split  runs  along  some  distance  ahead 
of  the  axe.  Hard  woods  do  not  split  so  easily  as  do  soft  woods,  and 
seasoned  wood  not  so  easily  as  green  wood,  while  all  timber  splits 
most  easily  along  radial  lines. 

CARPENTERS'  TOOLS 

Steel  Square.  It  is  not  only  important  that  the  workman 
should  know  the  character  and  usefulness  of  the  various  materials, 
but  it  is  also  essential  that  he  should  be  familiar  with  the  steel  square, 
which  is  the  universal  tool  used  to  lay  out  the  material.  Figs.  16 
and  17  show  one  side  of  one  of  the  common  squares  in  general  use. 
The  three  parts  are  distinguished  by  special  names,  the  tongue,  the 
blade,  and  the  heel.  The  longer  and  wider  arm  is  the  blade,  the 
shorter  and  narrower  arm  is  the  tongue,  and  the  point  where 
the  two  arms  meet  is  called  the  heel. 

The  numerous  applications  of  the  tool  are  given  in  detail  under 
the  subject  of  "The  Steel  Square." 

Saws.  Another  very  important  and  much  used  tool,  wherever 
wood  working  is  done,  is  the  saw,  and  so  much  depends  upon  its 
careful  manipulation  and  intelligent  use  that  it  will  not  be  out  of 
place  to  devote  a  few  pages  to  a  consideration  of  the  different  kinds 


42 


d  o 


O    CO 

<D    O 
t>>   US 


X  .-3 

H 


§     I 


CARPENTRY 


33 


Fig.  16. 
Steel  Square 


of  saws  and  their  respective  possibilities,  as  well  as  to  their  care  and 
the  way  in  which  they  should  be  chosen. 

There  are  in  general  two  kinds  of  saws,  which  differ  from  each 
other  in  the  arrangement  of  the  teeth,  and  which  are  intended,  one 
for  cutting  wood  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  grain,  and  the  other 
for  cutting  wood  at  right  angles 
to  the  grain.  In  order  to  cut 
the  wood  in  the  direction  of  the 
grain  it  is  not  necessary  to  cut 

through   very  many  of  the  fibers,   as  the  cut  is,  in 
general,  parallel  to  them,  but  it  is  necessary  rather  to 
force  the  fibers  apart  without  tearing  them.    Of  course 
it  is  impossible  to  cut  the  wood  without  tearing  the 
fibers  to  some  extent,  but  this  is  the  best  way  to  make 
clear  the  difference  in  principle  between  the  two  kinds 
of  saws,    and  an  understanding   of  this  difference  is 
necessary  in   order    to    appreciate    their    construction 
and  the  proper  care  of  them.    The  cutting  of  the  wood  across  the 
grain,  on  the  other  hand,  requires  a  tool  made  especially  with  a  view 
to  cutting  through  the  fibers  as  quickly  and  as  easily  as  possible. 
Besides    these   two    there   are 
various  other  special  saws  de- 
signed   for   a    particular    kind 
of  work,   such  as  the   cutting 
out   of  key  holes,  the  cutting 

of  dovetails,  the  cutting  of  miters,  and  other  oper- 
ations required  in  joiners'  or  carpenters'  work. 

Rip  Saw.  This  saw  is  designed  for  cutting 
along  the  direction  of  the  grain  of  the  wood,  and 
from  this  comes  its  name,  which  suggests  very 
clearly  its  purpose.  Fig.  18  shows  one  of  these 
saws,  but  the  shape  of  the  blade  varies  a  great  deal 
with  different  makers,  and  some  people  prefer  one 
shape  while  others  prefer  another. 

The  distinguishing  feature  is  the  shape  and  ar- 
rangement of  the  teeth,  which  are  shown  in  detail  in  Fig.  19 


Fig.  17., 
Steel  Square 


There 


are  always  a  certain  number  of  teeth  to  the  inch  length  of  the  saw. 


43 


34 


CARPENTRY 


In  this  kind  of  a  saw,  the  number  is  usually  four  or  five,  and  it  will 
be  noticed  that  one  side  of  the  tooth  is  vertical  while  the  other 
slopes.  The  vertical  side  of  the  tooth  is  always  toward  the  front  or 
point  of  the  saw,  while  the  sloping  side  is  always  toward  the  handle. 
The  amount  of  slope  to  be  given  to  the  teeth  of  a  saw  is  a  matter  of 


Fig.  18.     Side  View  of  Rip  Saw 

opinion  and  can  be  regulated  when  the  saw  is  sharpened,  or  "filed," 
but  the  slope  should  always  be  a  flat  one  in  this  kind  of  a  saw,  that 
is,  it  should  make  an  angle  of  less  than  forty-five  degrees  with  the 
horizontal,  or  with  the  line  of  the  back  of  the  saw. 

It  is  held  by  some  that  the 
teeth  of  a  rip  saw  should  be 
straight  on  the  front  edge,  that 


Fig.  19.     Slope  of  Teeth  in  Rip  Saw 


is,  that  they  should  have  the 
edge  at  right  angles  with  the 
side  of  the  blade,  while  others 
maintain  that  the  edge  of  the  tooth  should  be  cut  across  obliquely, 
so  as  to  be  at  an  angle  of  about  eighty-five  degrees  with  the  side  of 
the  blade.  A  saw  may  be  filed  either  way,  according  to  the  opinion 
of  the  owner,  the  determining  factor  being  usually  the  kind  of 
wood  to  be  cut  and  whether  the  grain  is  absolutely  straight  or  more 
or  less  crooked.  In  the  latter  case  the  edges  of  the  teeth  should 
certainly  have  a  slight  bevel  so  as  to  give  a  cutting  edge.  The 
bevel  should,  however,  be  on  alternate  sides  of  adjacent  teeth,  that 
is,  one  tooth  should  be   beveled   toward   the   right   and   the   next 

toward  the  left  and  so  on.  This 
arrangement  helps  to  keep  the 
saw  straight  while  cutting,  and 
prevents  it  from  being  forced  over  to  one  side  or  the  other.  Fig.  20 
shows  a  view  of  the  cutting  edge  of  a  rip  saw,  showing  the  way  in 
which  the  teeth  should  be  filed. 


z2n:3 


Fig.  20.     Blade  of  Rip  Saw  Edge-On 


44 


CARPENTRY 


35 


Fig.  21.    Slope  of  Teeth  of  Cross-Cut  Saw 


Lj^  I'gt:  "\:sc~  ^^  ^"^C- 


Fig.  22.  Cross-Cut  Saw,  Blade  Edge-On 


Cross-Cut  Saw.  As  has  been  already  explained  above,  and  as 
is  clearly  indicated  by  its  name,  this  saw  is  intended  for  the  cutting 
<)f  wood  across  the  grain  at  right  angles  to  the  direction  of  the  fibers. 
It  differs  from  the  rip  saw  prin- 
cipally in  the  size  and  arrange- 
ment of  the  teeth,  those  of  the 
cross-cut  saw  being  smaller,  usu- 
ally numbering  about  eight  to 
the  inch.  The  shape  of  the  teeth 
in  the  two  kinds  of  saws  is  also 
different,  as  the  front  of  the  tooth 
in    the    cross-cut    saw,    instead 

of  being  straight  as  in  the  rip  saw,  is  inclined  backward  at  an 
angle  of  about  115  degrees,  while  the  back  of  the  tooth  slopes 
at  an  angle  of  about  125  degrees.  The  slope  of  the  teeth  should  be 
varied  according  to  the  hardness  of  the  wood  to  be  sawed,  those 
given  above  being  suitable  for  soft  wood.  The  bevel  on  the  front 
of  the  tooth  should  also  be  varied  according  to  the  hardness  of  the 
wood,  so  as  to  give  a  more  or  less  sharp  cutting  edge.  In  the  saw 
described  above  this  bevel  should  be  about  sixty  degrees,  while  for 
harder  wood  it  should  be  as  much  as  seventy-five  degrees.  In  general, 
the  harder  the  wood  to  be  cut,  the  smaller  should  be  the  teeth  of 
the  saw.  Fig.  21  shows  a  cross-cut  saw  with  the  slope  of  the  teeth 
indicated,  and  Fig.  22  shows  how  the  teeth  should  be  filed.  The 
cross-cut  saw  is  also  known  as  the  "panel  saw." 

Hand  Saw.  There  is  a  saw,  which  is  much  used  for  general 
work,  which  combines  the  qualities  of  the  rip  saw  and  the  cross-cut 
saw.    It  is  called  the  "hand  saw,"  and  is  a  cross  between  the  other 


Fig.  23.     Back  Saw 


two.  It  may  be  used  for  either  cutting  with  the  grain  or  against  it, 
but  in  any  case  does  not  do  such  good  work  as  the  special  saw  which 
is  intended  for  the  particular  kind  of  work  which  is  at  hand. 


45 


36 


CARPENTRY 


Fig.  24.     Slope  of  Teeth  of  Back  Saw 


Back  Saw.  Fig.  23  shows  a  saw  which  is  known  as  a  back  saw, 
probably  because  of  the  extra  piece  on  the  back  which  Umits  the 
depth  to  which  the  saw  will  cut.  It  is  also  called  a  "tenon  saw." 
There  are  a  number  of  different  kinds,  varying  in  the  width  of  the 
blade  and  in  the  length  of  the  saw,  and  they  are  used  for  various 

special  purposes,  usually  in  miter 
boxes  and  for  sawing  bevels  on 
moldings.  Fig.  24  shows  the 
arrangement  of  the  teeth  on  a 
back  saw.  It  will  be  seen  that 
the  front  of  the  tooth  is  nearly  straight,  and  that  the  slope  of  the 
back  is  very  sharp,  making  the  number  of  teeth  to  the  inch  more 
than  in  the  rip  or  cross-cut  saws. 

Keyhole  Saw.  Fig.  25  shows  a  set  of  saw  blades  which  are 
intended  to  be  fastened  in  turn  to  the  same  handle  and  used  for 
various  purposes.  These  blades  are  very  thin  and  can  be  used  for 
cutting  out  small  holes  such  as  keyholes,  and  it  is  for  this  reason 
that  such  saws  are  called  "keyhole  saws."  The  teeth  are  in  general 
similar  to  those  of  the  back  saw,  but  are  usually  smaller. 

Great  care  must  be  exercised  in  the  filing  of  a  saw,  to  give  it 
the  proper  "set"  to  enable  it  to  do  the  work  required  of  it,  and  this 
work  is  better  left  to  an  expert.  Most  carpenters,  however,  like  to 
know  how  to  file  their  own  saws  and  to  keep  them  in  good  condi- 
tion. A  great  deal  has  been  written  on  this  subject  both  in  books 
and  in  trade  papers,  but  it  is  almost  impossible  to  describe,  in  writing, 
the  proper  methods.  It  is  a  part  of  the  carpenter's  trade  which 
must  be  learned  by  experiment  and  by  watching  the  older  workmen. 


Fig.  25.     Keyhole  Saw  with  Detachable  Blades 

Planes.  Timber  comes  from  the  mills  rough  from  the  saw,  and 
before  it  can  be  used  for  any  finished  work  it  must  be  prepared  to 
receive  paint  or  other  kinds  of  finish.  This  preparation  consists  in 
a  smoothing  or  planing  which  can  be  carried  to  any  extent,  including 


46 


CARPENTRY 


37 


Fig.  26.     Jack  Plane 


sandpapering  or  even  polishing.  The  instruments  used  for  the 
rougher  part  of  this  work  are  called  planes,  after  which,  if  more 
smoothing  is  required,  come  scrapers  and  sandpaper.  There  are  a 
great  many  different  kinds  of 
planes,  but  the  principle  of  all 
of  them  is  the  same.  They 
consist  of  a  sharp  blade,  or 
knife,  in  the  form  of  a  chisel, 
which  is  held  in  a  large  block 
of  wood  or  iron  by  means  of 
clamps,  so  that  the  knife  can  be  kept  steady  and  guided  easily.  The 
knife  projects  at  the  bottom  of  the  back  through  a  slot,  and  takes 
off  a  shaving  which  is  larger  or  smaller  according  to  the  projection 
of  the  knife.  For  smoothing,  the  cutting  edge  of  the  knife  must  be 
absolutely  straight  and  must  be  clamped  into  the  block  in  such  a 
way  that  the  projection  will  be  exactly  the  same  all  along  the  edge. 
Any  imperfections  in  the  edge  of  the  knife  will  be  repeated  on  the 
surface  of  the  wood.  Planes  are  in  general  of  two  kinds,  namely, 
"jack  planes"  and  "trying  planes." 

Jack  Planes.  The  jack  plane  is  used  for  the  rougher  work  to 
give  the  preliminary  smoothing  after  the  lumber  comes  from  the 
mill.  It  is  bigger  and,  as  a  rule,  heavier  than  the  finishing  planes, 
and  is  almost  always  made  of  wood,  while  the  others  are  often  made 


Fig.  27.     Wood-Bottom  Smooth 
Plane  with  Handle 


Fig.  28.     Wood-Bottom  Smooth 
Plane  without  Handle 


of  iron.  Fig.  26  shows  a  view  of  a  jack  plane.  The  handle  is  neces- 
sary to  push  the  block  forward,  and  it  is  usually  necessary  to  bear 
down  heavily  on  the  forward  end  of  the  block  to  keep  the  knife 
down  into  the  wood. 

Trying  and  Smoothing  Planes.     The  smoothing  plane  is  usually 
much  smaller  than  the  jack  plane,  as  it  is  not  expected  to  take  off 


47 


38 


CARPENTRY 


so  much  material  and  there  does  not  have  to  be  so  much  leverage. 
In  construction  it  is  similar  to  the  jack  plane,  and  may  be  made  of 
either  wood  or  iron.    Very  often,  however,  it  is  without  a  handle,  as 

no  great  force  is  required  to  oper- 
ate it.  The  trying  plane  is  longer 
than  the  jack  plane  and  is  used 
after  it  so  as  to  obtain  a  truer 
surface  on  the  piece  of  timber  than 
is  possible  with  the  jack  plane. 
It  is  also  used  for  edging  boards, 
and  it  is  narrower  than  either  the 
jack  plane  oi-  the  smoothing  plane. 
Figs.  27  and  28  show  two  wood- 
bottom  smooth  planes,  one  with 
a  handle  and  one  without,  and 
Fig.  29  shows  a  smooth  plane  with 
,  an  iron  bottom. 
In  Fig.  30  is  shown  a  sectional  view  of  both  a  wood  and  an 
iron  smooth  plane,  with  the  various  pieces  numbered,  and  in  Fig.  31 
are  shown  some  of  these  same  pieces  separately  with  the  same 
numbers  attached  to  each.  The  names  of  the  various  parts  are  as 
follows: 


Fig.  29.     Iron-Bottom  Smooth  Plane 


Fig.  30.     Sections  of  Wood-Bottom  and  Iron-Bottom  Smooth  Planes 

No.  1  is  the  "plane  iron,"  and  should  be  made  of  steel,  well  tempered 
and  ground.     It  should  be  throughout  of  the  same  thickness. 

No.  2  is  the  "plane  iron  cap,"  also  of  steel,  the  purpose  of  which  is  to 
protect  the  plane  iron. 

No.  3  is  the  "plane  iron  screw,"  which  fastens  the  plane  iron  cap  to  the 
plane  iron. 

No.  4  is  the  "cap"  (or  "cap  iron"),  which  holds  the  plane  iron  in  place, 
and  it  is  fastened  to  the  "frog"  by  means  of  the  "cap  screw,"  No.  5. 

No.  6  is  the  "frog,"  which  acts  as  a  support  for  the  plane  irons,  and 
which  is  fastened  to  the  body  of  the  plane  by  the  "frog  screw,"  No.  10. 


48 


CARPENTRY 


39 


No.  7  is  the  "Y"  adjustment,  the  end  of  which  fits  into  an  opening  in 
the  plane  iron  cap,  and  makes  possible  the  close  adjustment  of  the  position 
of  the  plane  iron.  The  adjustment  is  made  by  means  of  the  brass  "adjusting 
nut,"  No.  8. 

No.  9  is  the  "lateral  adjustment,"  by  means  of  which  the  plane  iron 
can  be  shifted  very  slightly  sideways  in  the  plane,  if  necessary,  so  as  to  bring 
it  parallel  with  the  edge  of  the  bottom  of  the  plane,  where  it  passes  through 
the  slot. 

No.  11  is  the  "handle,"  which  is  fastened  to  the  bottom  of  the  plane  by 
the  "handle  screw,"  No.  15,  and  by  the  "handle  bolt  and  nut,"  No.  13. 

No.  12  is  the  "knob,"  fastened  to  the  bottom  by  the  "knob  bolt  and 
nut,"  No.  14. 

No.  16  is  the  "bottom"  of  the  iron  plane,  while  No.  18  is  the  "bottom" 
of  the  wood  plane. 

No.  17  is  called  the  "top. casting"  and  occurs  only  on  the  wood  bottom 
plane 


o 

/ 


0 


Fig.  31.     Details  of  Parts  of  Smooth  Plane 

Nails.  In  general,  nails  are  of  two  kinds,  namely,  cut  nails 
and  wire  nails,  the  difference  between  the  two  kinds  being  in  the 
material  and  the  method  of  manufacture. 

Cut  Nails.  The  cut  nails,  also  called  plate  nails,  are  stamped 
out  of  a  flat  iron  plate,  in  alternate,  slightly  wedge-shaped  pieces, 
and  the  head  is  afterward  formed  on  the  large  end  of  each  piece. 
The  cut  nails  are  made  in  three  classes,  according  to  finish,  and  are 
called,  respectively,  "common,"  "casing,"  and  "finish"  nails.  The 
nails  known  as  "finishing  nails,"  however,  are  far  too  rough  for  fine 
finished  work.  The  length  of  the  nail  is  regulated  according  to  the 
"penny,"  which  formerly  had  reference  to  the  weight,  but  which  now 


49 


40  CARPENTRY 

is  purely  arbitrary.  Thus  a  three  penny  nail  is  1|  inches  long;  four 
penny,  1|  inches;  five  penny,  If  inches;  six  penny,  2  inches;  seven 
penny,  2|  inches;  eight  penny,  2|  inches;  nine  penny,  2f  inches;  ten 
penny,  3  inches;  twelve  penny,  SJ  inches;  sixteen  penny,  3^  inches; 
twenty  penny,  4  inches;  thirty  penny,  4|  inches;  forty  penny,  5 
inches;  fifty  penny,  5|  inches;  and  sixty  penny,  6  inches.  The  speci- 
fications which  have  just  been  given  for  cut  nails  also  hold  good 
for  wire  nails. 

Wire  Nails.  Wire  nails  are  rapidly  replacing  the  cut  nails  in 
general  use.  They  are  now  very  nearly  the  same  price  and  are  very 
much  stronger,  so  that  they  do  not  buckle  up  when  driven  into 
hard  wood,  and  they  are  not  nearly  so  liable  to  split  the  wood  on 
account  of  their  cylinder-shaped  shaft,  which  is  the  same  size  through- 
out its  entire  length.  They  are  made  from  wire,  which  is  cut  in 
lengths  by  machinery  and  pointed  and  headed.  They  can  also  be 
ribbed  or  barbed,  if  desired,  which  gives  them  a  stronger  hold  on 
the  wood.  They  are  made  with  various  kinds  of  heads,  some  being 
large  and  flat,  so  that  the  nail  can  be  easily  withdrawn,  while  others 
are  very  slightly  larger  than  the  shaft  of  the  nail  and  can  be  made 
almost  invisible  in  the  finished  work. 

For  framing,  large  nails  should  be  used,  from  4  to  6  inches  in 
length.  For  the  rougher  exterior  and  interior  finish,  such  as  sheathing 
and  rough  flooring,  nails  about  3  inches  long  are  suitable,  while  for 
the  finer  inside  finish  smaller  nails  from  2|  inches  down  to  1|  inches 
should  be  used.  Roofing  should  be  put  on  with  special  galvanized 
or  copper  nails  so  as  not  to  rust  out. 

Screws.  Screws  are  now  used  in  building  work  to  a  much 
greater  extent  than  was  formerly  the  custom,  largely  on  account 
of  their  decreased  cost.  They  have  the  advantage  over  nails,  as  they 
do  not  split  the  wood,  and  they  can  be  easily  withdrawn  when  desired, 
without  injuring  the  work  materially.  There  are  a  great  many 
different  kinds  of  wood  screws,  which  vary  as  to  the  shape  of  the 
head,  the  size  of  the  shaft,  and  the  length.  They  are  made  in  about 
the  same  lengths  as  those  given  above  for  nails,  and  with  both 
round  and  flat  heads. 

Screws  can  be  had  in  iron,  steel,  copper,  bronze,  and  brass. 
They  are  also  made  with  the  heads  silver-  and  gold-plated,  or 
lacquered  to  match  finishing  hardware. 


50 


CARPENTRY  41 

LAYING   OUT 

Having  now  considered  the  material  and  tiie  most  important  of 
the  tools  with  which  the  carpenter  performs  his  work,  we  shall  pass 
to  a  consideration  of  the  work  itself,  and  see  how  a  building  of 
wood  construction  is  put  together. 

Ground  Location.  In  undertaking  the  construction  of  any 
building,  the  first  thing  to  do  is  to  make  a  thoughtful  examination 
of  the  piece  of  ground  upon  which  the  structure  is  to  be  placed. 
This  is  very  important  as  the  character  of  the  soil  upon  which  a 
dwelling  is  located  will  very  largely  determine  its  sanitary  condition, 
and  will  influence  to  a  great  extent  the  health  of  the  occupants. 
Very  often  a  difference  of  a  few  yards  in  the  location  of  a  building 
will  be  enough  to  cause  the  difference  between  a  perfectly  dry  cellar 
and  one  which  is  constantly  flooded  with  water.  Water  is,  indeed, 
the  one  thing  above  all  others  which  must  be- guarded  against,  since 
it  is  impossible  to  keep  it  out  of  a  cellar  which  is  sunk  in  damp 
ground,  unless  some  elaborate  system  of  waterproofing  is  employed. 

Ground  Water.  Below  the  surface  of  the  earth  there  is  always 
to  be  found  what  is  known  as  "ground  water."  This  stands  prac- 
tically always  at  a  level,  and  is  not  met  with  so  near  the  surface  on 
a  slight  knoll  or  other  elevation  as  in  a  depression.  If  possible,  a 
house  should  be  located  on  comparatively  high  land,  so  that  the 
floor  of  the  cellar  does  not  come  below  the  ground-water  level. 
Below  the  surface  of  a  hill,  however,  there  may  be  a  stratum  of 
rock  which  will  hold  the  rain  water  and  prevent  it  from  sinking  at 
once  to  the  ground-water  level.  Such  a  ledge  of  rock  causes  the 
water  to  collect  and  then  flow  off  in  small  subterranean  streams, 
which  will  penetrate  the  walls  of  a  cellar  if  they  happen  to  be  in 
their  path. 

A  good  way  to  discover  the  depth  of  the  ground-water  level  or 
the  existence  of  rock  ledges  beneath  the  surface  of  the  ground,  is 
to  dig  a  number  of  small,  deep  holes  at  various  points  of  the  site. 
These  should  be  carried  below  the  proposed  level  of  the  cellar 
bottom.     A  suitable  location  for  the  building  may  thus  be  chosen. 

If,  however,  it  is  not  easy  to  make  so  thorough  an  examination 
of  the  site  as  this  would  allow,  another  method  may  be  employed. 
This  consists  in  the  use  of  an  instrument  called  an  "auger,"  which 


51 


42 


CARPENTRY 


is  very  much  like  an  ordinary  carpenter's  auger  or  bit,  though  much 
larger.  The  auger  generally  used  is  about  2  inches  in  diameter.  It 
is  driven  into  the  ground,  and  as  it  descends  into  the  hole  which  it 
bores  it  brings  to  the  surface  small  portions  of  all  the  different  kinds 
of  material  through  which  it  passes.  This  material  may  be  preserved 
and  examined  at  leisure.  The  character  of  the  site  may  be  determined 
in  this  way. 

Staking  Out.  When  the  approximate  position  of  the  structure 
has  been  decided  upon,  the  next  step  is  to  "stake  it  out,"  that  is, 
the  position  of  the  corners  of  the  building  must  be  located  and 
marked  in  some  way,  so  that  when  the  excavation  is  begun  the 
workmen  may  know  what  are  the  exact  boundaries  of  the  cellar. 
This  "staking  out"  should  always  be  carefully  attended  to,  no  matter 
how  small  the  building  may  be.  In  works  of  importance  it  is  best 
to  have  the  work  done  by  an  engineer,  but  on  small  work  it  is 
customary  for  the  contractor  or  the  archi- 
tect to  attend  to  it.  It  is  well  to  have 
at  hand  some  instrument  with  which 
angles  can  be  accurately  measured,  such 
as  a  transit;  but  the  work  can  be  done 
very  satisfactorily  with  a  tape  measure 
and  a  "mason's  square."  This  simple 
instrument  is  composed  of  three  sticks  of 
timber  nailed  together  as  shown  in  Fig.  32, 
to  form  a  right-angled  triangle.  It  is 
important  that  the  tape  used  should  be 
accurate,  a  steel  tape  being  always  preferable,  and  that  the  mason's 
square  should  give  an  exact  right  angle.  A  mistake  in  the  staking 
out  may  cause  endless  trouble  when  the  erection  of  the  building 
itself  is  begun,  and  it  is  then  too  late  to  remedy  it. 

There  are  several  different  lines  which  must  be  located  at  some 
time  during  the  construction,  and  they  may  as  well  be  settled  at 
the  start.  These  are:  The  line  of  excavation,  which  is  outside  of 
all;  the  face  of  the  basement  wall,  inside  of  the  excavation  line;  and 
in  the  case  of  masonry  building,  the  ashlar  line,  which  indicates  the 
outside  of  the  brick  or  stone  walls.  In  the  case  of  a  wood  structure 
only  the  two  outside  lines  need  be  located,  and  often  only  the  line 
of  the  excavation  is  determined  at  the  outset. 


Fig.  32.     Mason's  Square 


52 


CARPENTRY 


43 


The  first  thing  to  do  is  to  lay  out  upon  the  ground  the  main 
rectangle  of  the  building,  after  which  the  secondary  rectangles,  which 
indicate  the  position  of  ells,  bay  windows,  etc.,  may  be  located. 
Starting  at  any  point  on  the  lot  where  it  is  desired  to  place  one 
corner  of  the  building,  a  stake  should  be 
driven  into  the  ground  and  lines  laid  out 
parallel  and  perpendicular  to  the  street 
upon  which  the  structure  is  to  face.  At 
the  ends  of  these  lines,  which  form  sides 
of  our  rectangle,  the  lengths  of  which  are 
determined  by  the  dimensions  of  the 
building,  other  stakes  should  be  driven, 
which  define  the  direction  and  the  length 
of  the  building.  The  exact  location  of  the  ends  of  the  line  may 
be  indicated  by  a  nail  driven  into  the  top  of  each  stake. 

After  these  lines  have  been  thus  laid  out,  others  may  be  laid 
out  perpendicular  to  them  at  the  ends,  with  the  aid  of  the  mason's 


Fig.  33.     Diagram  Showing 
Wrong  Ground  Layout 


Fig.  34.     Batter  Board  to  Indicate  Layout 


square  and  the  tape  measure.  The  accuracy  of  the  right  angle  may 
be  checked  by  the  use  of  the  "three-four-five"  rule.  This  rule  is 
based  upon  the  fact  that  a  triangle,  whose  three  sides  are,  respectively, 
3,  4,  and  5  feet  long,  is  an  exact  right-angled  triangle,  the  right  angle 


53 


44  CARPENTRY 

being  always  the  angle  between  the  3-foot  and  the  4-foot  sides. 
This  fact  may  be  proven  by  applying  the  well-known  theorem,  which 
states  that  the  length  of  the  hypotenuse  of  a  right-angled  triangle 
is  equal  to  the  square  root  of  the  sum  of  the  squares  of  the  other 
two  sides.    The  rule  may  be  used  as  follows: 

Lay  off  on  one  of  the  side  lines  already  laid  out  on  the  ground 
any  multiple  of  3  feet,  as  9  feet  or  12  feet.  On  the  other  line,  pre- 
sumably at  right  angles  to  the  first  one,  lay  off  the  same  multiple 
of  4  feet,  as  12  feet  or  16  feet.  Now  a  straight  line  measured  between 
the  points  so  obtained,  should  have  a  length  equal  to  the  same 
multiple  of  5  feet,  as  15  feet  or  12  feet.  If  this  is  not  found  to  be 
the  case  the  angle  laid  out  is  not  an  exact  right  angle,  and  instead 
of  a  rectangle  we  have  a  parallelogram  as  shown  in  Fig.  33.  This 
will  not  do  at  all,  and  the  inaccuracy  must  be  corrected.  It  is  possible 
to  lay  out  the  right  angle  in  the  first  place  by  this  same  method, 

using  two  flexible  cords,  respectively, 
4  feet  and  5  feet  long.  The  end  of  the 
4-foot  cord  should  be  fastened  at  the 
end  of  the  side  line  of  the  building,  and 
the  end  of  the  5-foot  cord  should  be  fast- 
ened on  this  same  side  line,  3  feet  away 
from  the  corner.  When  the  loose  ends  of 
both  cords  are  held  together,  and  the 
cords  are  both  drawn  taut,  the  point 
^^^-  ^^'  B?tterB^o*ard  ^  '^^^'^  °^    whcrc  the  cuds  meet  will  be  a  point  on 

the  side  line  of  the  building  perpendic- 
ular to  the  first  side  line.  It  is  evident  that  this  point  must  be  just 
4  feet  from  the  corner,  and  that  the  distance  between  it  and  the 
point  on  the  other  side  line,  3  feet  from  the  corner,  must  be  5  feet. 

After  all  the  corners  of  the  building  have  been  located,  their 
position  should  be  indicated  by  the  use  of  "batter  boards."  One 
of  these  is  shown  in  Fig.  34.  It  will  be  seen  that  it  consists  of  a 
post  A,  which  is  set  up  at  the  corner,  together  with  two  horizontal 
pieces  BB,  which  extend  outward  for  a  short  distance  along  the  sides 
of  the  rectangle  that  has  been  laid  out.  The  horizontal  pieces  may 
be  braced  securely  as  shown,  and  the  whole  will  be  a  permanent 
indication  of  the  position  of  the  corner.  Notches  may  be  cut  in  the  top 
of  the  horizontal  pieces  to  indicate  the  position  of  the  various  lines, 


54 


CARPENTRY  45 

and  cords  may  then  be  stretched  between  the  notches  from  batter 
board  to  batter  board.  These  cords  will  give  the  exact  location  of 
the  Hnes. 

Another  way  to  indicate  the  position  of  the  Hnes  is  by  driving 
small  nails  into  the  tops  of  the  batter  boards  instead  of  cutting 
notches  in  them;  but  nails  may  be  withdrawn,  while  the  notches 
when  they  are  once  cut,  can  not  easily  be  obliterated. 

Batter  boards  should  always  be  set  up  very  securely,  so  that 
they  will  not  be  displaced  during  the  building  operations.  If  there 
is  danger  that  the  form  of  batter  board  shown  in  Fig.  34  may  be 
displaced,  because  of  the  large  size  of  the  structure  and  the  length 
of  time  during  which  they  must  be  used,  the  form  shown  in  Fig.  35 
may  be  substituted.  Two  of  these  at  right  angles  to  each  other 
must  be  placed  at  each  corner. 


55 


■ 

^W! 

iwlliii           liiiiAwiiii  ■111  iiiiiiiiii  II        -^^** .     '?.■»»!    *W^i|^^^^^| 

•.  - - 

HOUSE  IN  THE  WHITE  MOUNTAINS,  NEW  HAMPSHIRE 

The  Boulders,  which  are  Plentiful  in  this  Region,  have  been  Used  to  Good  Advantage. 


HOUSE  NEAR  PHILADELPHIA,  PA. 

It  is  Verily  a  Part  of  the  Landscape, 


CARPENTRY 

PART  II 


FRAMING 


After  the  building  has  been  laid  out,  and  the  batter  boards  are 
in  place,  the  next  work  which  a  carpenter  is  called  upon  to  do  is 
the  framing.  This  consists  in  preparing  a  skeleton,  as  we  may  say, 
upon  which  a  more  or  less  ornamental  covering  is  to  be  placed. 
Just  as  the  skeleton  is  the  most  essential  part  of  the  human  body, 
so  is  the  frame  the  most  essential  part  of  a  wood  building;  and 
upon  the  strength  of  this  frame  depends  the  strength  and  durability 
of  the  structure.  When  the  carpenter  comes  to  the  work,  he  finds 
everything  prepared  for  him;  the  cellar  has  been  dug  and  the  foun- 
dation walls  and  the  underpinning  have  been  built.  It  is  his  busi- 
ness to  raise  the  framework  on  them.  First  is  the  wall,  then  the 
floors,  and  then  the  roof.  Therefore,  the  subject  may  be  subdivided, 
and  considered  under  these  three  main  headings.  In  connection 
with  the  walls  we  may  consider  the  partitions  as  well  as  the  outside 
walls,  and  in  connection  with  the  floors  we  may  consider  the  stairs, 
while  the  roof  may  be  taken  as  comprising  the  main  roof  and  also 
subordinate  roofs  over  piazzas,  balconies,  and  ells.  This  covers  all 
the  framing  that  will  be  found  in  a  wood  building,  except  special 
framing.  (See  page  147,  Part  III.)  Whatever  framing  there  is  in 
a  brick  or  stone  building  is  similar  to  that  in  a  wood  building,  with 
the  slight  differences  which  may  be  noted  as  we  come  to  them. 

JOINTS  AND  SPLICES  IN  CARPENTRY 

Before  beginning  a  description  of  the  framing,  it  will  be  well  to 
consider  the  methods  employed  in  joining  pieces  of  timber  together. 
The  number  of  different  kinds  of  connections  is  really  very  small, 
and  the  principles  upon  which  they  are  based  may  be  mastered  very 
quickly. 

Copyright,  1912,  by  American  School  of  Correspondence. 


57 


48 


CARPENTRY 


All  connections  between  pieces  of  timber  may  be  classified  as 
joints  or  as  splices.    By  a  "splice"  we  mean  a  connection  between 

two  pieces  which  extend  in  the 
same  direction,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  36,  and  each  one  of  which 
is  merely  a  continuation  of  the 
other.  The  only  reason  for  the 
existence  of  such  a  connection 
is  the  fact  that  sticks  of  timber 
can  be  obtained  only  in  limited 
lengths  and  must,  therefore, 
very  often  be  pieced.  By  a 
"joint"  we  mean  any  connec- 
tion between  two  pieces  which 
come  together  at  an  angle,  as  shown  in  Fig.  37,  and  which  are, 
therefore,  not  continuous.  Such  a  connection  may  be  required  in 
a  great  many  places,  and  especially  at  the  corners  of  a  building. 

Joints.  The  principal  kinds  of  joints  to  be  met  with  in  car- 
pentry are  the  "butt  joint,"  the  "mortise-and-tenon  joint,"  the 
"gained  joint,"  the  "halved  joint,"  the  "tenon-and-tusk  joint,"  and 
the  "double-tenon  joint.". 

Butt  Joint.  This  is  the  most  simple  of  all  the  joints,  and  is 
made  by  merely  placing  the  two  pieces  together  with  the  end  of 


Fig.  36.     Example  of  a  Splice 


Fig.  37.     Example  of  Plain  Joint 


Fig.  38.     Square  Butt  Joint 


one  piece  against  the  side  of  the  other  and  naihng  them  firmly  to 
each  other,  after  both  have  been  trimmed  square  and  true.  Such  a 
joint  is  shown  in  Fig.  38.    The  two  pieces  are  perpendicular  to  each 


58 


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CARPENTRY 


49 


other  and  neither  piece  is  cut.    The  nails  are  driven  diagonally  through 

both  pieces,  an  operation  which  is  known  as  "toe-nailing"  and  are 

driven  home,  if  necessary,  with  a 

nail  set.    This  is  called  a  "square" 

butt    joint.      Fig.    39    shows   two 

pieces  which  are  not  perpendicular 

to  each  other.    They  are  trimmed 

to  fit  closely  together,  and  are  then 

nailed   in  place.     Such  a  joint  is 

called  an  "oblique"  butt  joint.    The 

butt  joint  does  not  make  a  strong 

connection  between  the  pieces,  and 

should  not  be  used  if  much  strength 

is   required.      It   depends  entirely 

upon  the  nails  for  its  strength,  and 

these  are  very  likely  to  pull  out. 

This  form  of  joint  is  sometimes  modified  by  cutting  away  a 
part  of  one  of  the  pieces,  so  that  the  other  may  set  down  into  it  as 
shown  in  Fig.  40,  the  square  joint  at  A,  and  the  oblique  joint  at  B. 


Fig.  39.     Oblique  Butt  Joint 


Fig.  40.     Special  Types  of  Square  and  Oblique  Butt  Joints 

This  gives  much  additional  strength  to  the  joint,  especially  in  the 
case  shown  at  B,  where  there  may  be  a  tendency  for  one  piece  to 
slide  along  the  other. 


59 


50 


CARPENTRY 


Mortise-and- Tenon  Joint.     From  the  modified  butt  joint  it  is 
only  a  step  to  the  "mortise-and-tenon"  joint,  which  is  formed  by 

cutting  a  hole  called  a  "mortise"  in  one 
of  the  pieces  of  timber,  to  receive  a  pro- 
jection called  a  "tenon"  which  is  cut  on 
the  end  of  the  other  piece.  This  arrange- 
ment is  shown  in  Fig.  41.  The  mortise 
is  shown  at  A,  and  the  tenon  is  shown  at 
B.  It  will  be  noticed  that  there  is  a  hole 
bored  through  the  tenon  at  C,  and  that 
another  hole  is  bored  in  the  mortised  piece 
at  D.  These  holes  are  so  placed  that  when 
the  pieces  are  joined  together,  a  wood  pin 
may  be  driven  through  both  holes,  thus 
preventing  the  tenon  from  being  with- 
The  pin  should  always  be  inserted  in  a 
Ordinarily  this  pin  is  of  hard  wood,  even 


Fig.  41.     Square  Mortise-and- 
Tenon  Joint 


drawn  from  the  mortise 
mortise-and-tenon  joint. 


when  the  pieces  to  be  joined  together  are  themselves  of  soft  wood, 
and  it  may  be  of  any  desired  size.  Round  pins  from  |  inch  to  | 
inch  in  diameter  are  ordinarily  employed,  although  it  may  sometimes 
be  found  better  to  use  a  square  pin. 

The  form  of  mortise-and-tenon  joint  described  above  may  be 


Fig.  42.     Form  of  Bridge  or 
Straddle  Joint 


Fig.  43.     Anothor  Form  of  Bridge 
or  Straddle  Joint 


used  wherever  the  pieces  are  perpendicular  to  each  other.     When, 
however,  the  pieces  are  inclined  to  each  other,  a  modification  of  the 


60 


CARPENTRY 


51 


above  joint  known  as  the  "bridge"  or  "straddle"  joint  is  employed. 
This  joint  is  shown  in  Figs.  42  and  43.  It  is  similar  to  the  square 
mortise-and-tenon  joint,  having  a  similar  mortise  and  tenon,  but 
these  are  cut  in  a  slightly  different  way.  In  Fig.  42  the  tenon  A 
is  cut  in  the  end  of  the  inclined  piece  and  fits  into  the  mortise  B  cut 
in  the  other  piece.  In  Fig.  43  the  mortise  A  is  cut  in  the  end  of  the 
inclined  piece  and  the  tenon  B  is  cut  in  the  other  piece. 

Gained  Joint.  The  joints  which  have  so  far  been  described  are 
applicable  only  where  the  members  are  subjected  to  direct  compres- 
sion, as  in  the  case  of  posts  or  braces,  or  in  certain  cases  where  direct 
tension  is  the  only  force  acting  on  the  pieces.  When  bending  and 
shearing  are  to  be  expected,  as  in  the  case  of  floor  beams  connecting 
to  sills  or  girders,  a  slightly  different  sort  of  joint  must  be  employed. 

One  of  the  most  common 
joints  for  such  places  is  a  modifi- 
cation of  the  mortise-and-tenon 
joint  which  is  known  as  the 
"gained  joint."  An  example  of 
this  form  of  connection  is  shown 
in  Fig.  44,  and  it  may  be  seen 


that  .the  end  of  one  piece  is 
tenoned  in  a  peculiar  way.  The 
tenon  proper  is  the  part  A-B-C 
and  this  tenon  sets  into  a  corre- 
sponding mortise  cut  in  the  other 
piece  as  shown.  It  is  evident  that  the  tenon  can  not  be  held  in  place 
by  a  pin,  but  it  may  be  secured  by  naihng. 

The  reason  for  this  pecuHar  form  of  tenon  may  be  explained 
as  follows:  A  floor  beam,  or  any  other  timber,  which  is  loaded  trans- 
versely, has  a  tendency  to  fall  to  the  ground,  and  must  be  supported 
at  its  ends  either  by  resting  directly  on  a  wall  or  sill,  or  by  being 
mortised  into  the  latter  member.  Moreover,  in  order  that  the  end 
of  the  piece  resting  on  the  support,  may  not  be  crushed  or  broken,  a 
certain  amount  of  bearing  surface  must  be  available.  This  same 
bearing  surface  must  be  provided  in  every  case  no  matter  whether 
the  timber  rests  directly  on  the  top  of  the  sill  or  is  mortised  into 
it.  Of  course  the  simplest  connection  is  obtained  by  resting  the 
transverse  piece  directly  on  top  of  the  sill  without  cutting  either 


Fig.  44.  Gained  Joint 


61 


52 


CARPENTRY 


Fig.  45.     Tenon-and-Tusk  Joint 


piece;  but  such  a  joint  is  not  stiff  and  strong,  and  it  is  often  neces- 
sary to  bring  the  timbers  flush  with  each  other  at  the  top  or  at  the 
bottom.    For  this  reason  a  mortised  joint  is  used;  and  in  order  to 

obtain  the  required  amount  of 
bearing  surface  without  cutting 
the  piece  too  much,  the  form  of 
tenon  shown  in  Fig.  44  is  em- 
ployed. The  available  bearing 
area  here  is  furnished  by  the  sur- 
faces D-A  and  B-C  and  it  may 
easily  be  seen  that  this  area  is  the 
same  as  would  be  available  if  the 
piece  rested  directly  on  top  of  the  sill. 

The  operation  of  cutting  such  a  tenon  and  mortise  is  known 
as  "gaining,"  and  one  piece  is  said  to  be  "gained"  into  the  other. 

Tenon-and-Tusk  Joint.  A  joint  in  very  common  use  in  such 
situations  as  those  which  have  just  been  mentioned  is  a  develop- 
ment of  the  gained  joint  which  is  called  the  "tenon-and-tusk"  or 
the  "tusk-tenon"  joint.  This  joint  is  shown  in  Fig.  45.  The  char- 
acteristic feature  of  this  joint  is  to  be  found  in  the  peculiar  shape  of 
^^^^^  the  tenon  which  is  cut  in  the  end 

of  one  of  the  pieces  to  be  joined, 
as  shown  in  the  figure.  It  may 
be  seen  that  there  is  a  small 
square  tenon  B  cut  in  the  ex- 
treme end  of  the  piece,  and  that 
in  addition  to  this  there  are  other 
cuts  C  which  constitute  the 
"tusk."  The  bearing  area  is 
furnished  partly  by  the  under 
side  of  the  tenon  and  partly  by  the  under  side  of  the  tusk. 

This  joint  makes  a  very  good  connection,  and  the  cutting  of 
the  mortise  does  not  weaken  the  piece  of  timber  so  much  as  does 
the  mortise  for  a  gained  joint.  It  is  especially  applicable  when  it  is 
desired  to  have  the  two  pieces  flush  on  top,  although  it  may  also  be 
used  in  other  positions.  When  the  top  of  the  tenoned  piece  must 
project  above  the  top  of  the  mortised  piece,  the  tenon  may  be  cut 
as  shown  in  Fig.  46. 


Fig.  46.    Tenon-and-Tusk  Joint  with  Specially 
Cut  Tenon  Piece 


62 


CARPENTRY 


53 


There  are  several  ways  of  securing  the  tenon  in  place.  The 
simplest  is  that  shown  in  Fig.  47,  where  the  pin  B  is  passed  through 
the  tenon  A  and  the  mortised  piece  so  as  to  hold  the  tenon  securely 
in  place.    Another  scheme  is  to  cut  the  square  tenon  a  little  longer, 


Fig.  47.     Pinned  Tenon-and-Tusk 
Joint 


Fig.  48.     Pegged.  Tenon-and-Tusk 
Joint 


as  shown  in  Fig.  48,  so  as  to  pass  clear  through  the  mortised  piece, 
and  to  fasten  it  with  a  peg  B  on  the  other  side.  The  peg  may  be  cut 
slightly  tapering,  as  shown,  so  that  when  it  is  driven  in  place  it  will 
draw  the  pieces  together.  Still  another  plan  is  shown  in  Fig.  49. 
Here  a  small  hole  is  cut  in  the  header  some  distance  back  from  the 
tenon  and  a  nut  C  is  placed  in  it,  while  a  bolt  B  is  passed  through 
a  hole  bored  lengthwise  in  the  header  to  receive  it.  The  bolt  passes 
through  the  nut,  which  may  be  screwed  up  tight,  thus  drawing  the 
pieces  closely  together  and  making  the  joint  secure.  In  tightening 
this  up,  it  is  the  bolt  which  must  be  turned,  while  the  nut  is  held 
stationary  inside  of  the  square  hole  in  which  it  is  inserted  and  which 
is  just  large  enough  to  receive 
the  nut  and  a  wrench. 

Double  Tenon  Joint.  Fig. 
50  shows  a  form  of  tenon  joint 
called  the  "double  tenon"  joint, 
which  is  not  very  extensively 
used   at   the   present   time   but 

which  has  some  advantages.  As  may  be  readily  seen,  there  are 
two  small  tenons  A  and  B  through  which  a  pin  may  be  passed  if 
desired. 

Halved  Joint.  A  form  of  joint  which  may  be  used  to  connect 
two  pieces  which  meet  at  a  corner  of  a  building,  is  shown  in 
Fig.  51. 


Fig.  49.     Bolted  Tenon-and-Tusk  Joint 


63 


54 


CARPENTRY 


This  is  known  as  the  "halved"  joint  from  the  fact  that  both 
pieces  are  cut  half  way  through  and  then  placed  together.  The 
pieces  are  held  in  place  by  nails  or  spikes. 

If  one  piece  meets  the  other 
near  the  center  instead  of  at  the 
end  of  the  piece,  and  if  there  is 
danger  that  the  two  pieces  may 
pull  away  from  each  other,  a  form 
of  joint  called  the  "dovetail" 
halved  joint  is  used.  This  is 
shown  in  Fig.  52.  Both  the 
tenon  and  the  mortise  are  cut 
in  the  shape  of  a  fan,  or  dovetail, 
which  prevents  the  two  pieces 
from  being  pulled  apart.  This 
joint  may  also  be  cut  as  shown 
in  Fig.  53,  with  the  flare  on  only  one  side  of  the  tenon,  the  other 
side  being  straight. 

Splices.  As  already  explained,  a  splice  is  merely  a  joint  between 
two  pieces  of  timber  which  extend  in  the  same  direction,  and  is  som^e- 
times  necessary  because  one  long  piece  can  not  be  conveniently  or 
cheaply  obtained.  The  only  object  in  view,  then,  is  to  fasten  the 
two  pieces  of  timber  together  in  such  a  way  that  the  finished  piece 


Fig.  50.     Double  Tenon  Joint 


Fig.  51.     Halved  Joint 


Fig.  52.     Dovetail  Halved  Joint 


will  be  in  all  respects  equivalent  to  a  single  unbroken  piece,  and  will 
satisfy  all  of  the  requirements  of  the  unbroken  piece.  This  is  really 
the  only  measure  of  the  efiiciency  of  a  splice. 


64 


CARPENTRY 


55 


Dovetail  Halved  Joint  with  One 
Flare 


There  are  three  kinds  of  forces  to  which  a  piece  may  be  sub- 
jected, namely:  Compression,  tension,  and  bending.  A  sphce  which 
would  be  very  effective  in  a 
timber  acted  upon  by  one  of  these 
forces  might  be  absolutely  worth- 
less in  a  piece  which  must  resist 
one  of  the  other  forces.  We  have, 
therefore,  three  classes  of  splices, 
each  designed  to  resist  one  of 
these  three  forces. 

Splices  for  Compression.  The 
simplest  splices  are  those  in- 
tended to  resist  compression 
alone,  and  of  these  the  most 
simple  is  that  shown  in  Fig.  54.  Fig.  53. 
This  piece  is  said  to  be  "fished"; 
the  two  parts  are  merely  sawed  off  square  and  the  ends  placed 
together.  A  couple  of  short  pieces  A-A,  called  "fish  plates,"  are 
nailed  on  opposite  sides  to  keep  the  parts  in  fine.  In 
the  sphce  shown  in  Fig.  54,  the  sphcing  pieces  are  of 
wood,  and  ordinary  nails  are  used  to  fasten  them 
in  place,  but  in  more  important  work  thin  iron 
plates  are  used,  the  thickness  being  varied  to  suit 
the  conditions.  They  are  held  in  place  by  means  of 
bolts  with  washers  and  nuts. 

If  for  any  reason  it  is  desired  not  to  use  plates 
of  this  kind,  four  small  pieces  called  dowels  may  be 
used,  as  indicated  in  Fig.  55.  These  dowels  may  be 
set  into  the  sides  of  the  timbers  to  be  spliced,  so 
that  they  do  not  project  at  all  beyond  the  faces  of 
these  pieces  and  a  very  neat  job  may  thus  be 
obtained. 

It  is  but  a  step  to  pass  from  this  simple  splice 
to  the  "halved"  sphce  shown  in  Fig.  56.  It  will  be 
noticed  that  it  is  much  like  the  halved  joint  described 
above,  the  only  difference  being  that  the  pieces  are 
continuous,  instead  of  being  perpendicular  to  each  other.  The  nature 
of  the  splice  will  be  easily  understood  from  the  figure  without  further 


Fig.  54.    Fished 
Splice 


65 


56 


CARPENTRY 


explanation.  A  modification  of  this  which  is  somewhat  more  effec- 
tive, is  shown  in  Fig.  57.  The  cuts  are  here  made  on  a  bevel  in  such 
a  way  that  the  parts  fit  accurately  when  placed  together,  and  the 
splice  is  called  a  "beveled"  splice. 


Fig.  55.  Doweled  Splice 


Fig.  56.  Halved  Splice 


The  halved  splice  is  perhaps  the  best  that  can  be  used  to  resist 
direct  compression,  and  when  it  is  combined  with  fish  plates  and 
bolts,  as  shown  in  Fig.  58,  it  may  be  used  in  cases  where  some  tension 
is  to  be  expected.  It  will  be  noticed  that  in  Fig.  58  the  ends  of  the 
timbers  are  cut  with  a  small  additional  tongue  A,  but  this  does  not 
materially  strengthen  the  splice  and  it  adds  considerably  to  the  labor 
of  forming  it.  In  general  it  may  be  said  that  the  simplest  splice  is 
the  most  effective. 


Fig.  57.     Beveled  Splice 


Fig.    58.      Halved   Splice  with 
Fish  Plates  and  Bolts 


Whenever  the  pieces  are  cut  to  fit  into  one  another,  as  they 
do  in  the  halved  and  beveled  splices,  the  splice  is  known  as  a  "scarf' 
splice,  and  the  operation  of  cutting  and  joining  the  parts  is  called 


66 


CARPENTRY 


57 


"scarfing."  Scarf  splices  are  used,  as  we  have  already  seen,  both 
alone  and  in  combination  with  fish  plates.  The  fished  splice  is  always 
the  stronger,  but  the  splice  where  scarfing  alone  is  resorted  to  has 
the  neatest  appearance. 

Splices  for  Tension.  There  are  several  common  forms  of  splices 
for  resisting  direct  tension.  These  differ 
from  each  other  mainly  in  the  amount 
of  labor  involved  in  making  them.  The 
simplest  of  them  is  shown  in  Fig.  59,  and 
it  will  be  seen  that  it  is  only  a  slight 
modification  of  the  halved  splice  used  for 
resisting  compression.  It  is  evident  that 
the  pieces  can  not  pull  apart  in  the  direc- 
tion   of   their   length    until   the   timber 

crushes  along  the  face  marked  A-B,  or  shears  along  the  dotted  line 
A-C.  By  varying  the  dimensions  of  the  splice  it  may  be  made  suit- 
able for  any  situation.  The  parts  are  held  closely  together  by  the 
light  fish  plate  shown  in  the  figure,  which  also  incidentally  adds 
something  to  the  strength  of  the  splice. 

Instead  of  cutting  the  ends  of  the  beams  square,  as  shown  in  Fig. 
59,  they  frequently  are  cut  on  a  bevel  as  shown  in  Fig.  60,  and  a 
further  modification  may  be  introduced  by  inserting  a  small  "key" 
of  hard  wood  between  for  the  pieces  to  pull  against,  Fig.  61.  This 
key  is  usually  made  of  oak  and  may  be  in  two  parts,  as  shown  in 


Fig.  59.     Squared  Splice  for 
Tension 


Fig.  60.     Beveled  Splice  for  Tension 


Fig.  61.      Beveled  and  Keyed  Splice  for 
Tension 


Fig.  62,  each  part  in  the  shape  of  a  wedge,  so  that  when  they  are 
driven  into  place  a  tight  joint  may  be  obtained.  The  two  wedge- 
shaped  pieces  may  be   driven  in  from   opposite   sides,   the  hole 


67 


58 


CARPENTRY 


Fig.  62.     Key  for  Beveled  and  Keyed  Joint 


being  a  little  smaller  than  the  key.  If  the  key  is  made  much  too 
large  for  the  hole,  however,  a  so-called  "initial"  stress  is  brought 
into  the  timbers,  which  uses  up  some  of  their  strength  even  before 

any  load  is  applied.    This  should  be 
avoided. 

If  it  is  desired,  two  or  more  keys 
may  be  employed  in  a  splice,  the 
only  limiting  condition  being  that 
they  must  be  placed  far  enough 
apart  so  the  wood  will  not  shear 
out  along  the  dotted  line  shown  in 
Fig.  61.  Another  feature  of  the 
splice  here  shown  is  the  way  in 
which  the  pieces  are  cut  with  two  bevels  on  the  end  instead  of 
one.  One  bevel  starts  at  the  edge  of  the  key  and  is  very  gradual, 
the  other  starts  at  the  extreme  end  of  the  piece  and  is  rather  steep 
and  sharp.  These  bevels  can  be  used  only  in  joints  which  resist 
tension  alone.  If  such  a  splice  were  subjected  to  compression,  the 
beveled  ends  would  slide  on  each  other  and  push  by  each  other  very 
easily,  except  as  they  are  prevented  from  so  doing  by  the  fish  plates, 
if  these  are  used. 

Tension  Splice  with  Fish  Plates.  The  splices  for  tension  which 
have  so  far  been  described  have  all  been  scarf  joints,  but  there  is  a 
fished  splice  which  is  very  commonly  used  for  tension.  This  splice 
is  shown  in  Fig.  63.     The  fish  plates,  in  this  case  of  wood,  are  cut 

into  the  two  pieces  to  be  spliced,  so 
as  to  hold  them  firmly  together. 
The  pieces  can  not  be  pulled  apart 
until  one  of  the  plates  shears  off 
along  the  dotted  line  A-B.  The  dis- 
tance C-D  must  also  be  made  large 
enough  so  that  the  piece  will  not 
shear.  This  splice  is  very  often 
used  for  the  lower  chords  of  the 
various  forms  of  wood  trusses,  and 
it  is  considered  one  of  the  best  that  has  been  devised  for  resisting 
direct  tension. 

Splices  for  Bending.     It  sometimes  happens  that  a  piece  which 


Fig.  63.    Tension  Splice  with  Fish  Plates 


68 


CARPENTRY 


59 


Fig.  64.      Splice  Designed  for  Bending 

Strains 


is  subjected  to  a  bending  stress  must  be  spliced,  and  in  this  case  the 
spHce  must  be  formed  to  suit  the  existing  conditions.  It  is  well  known 
that  in  a  timber  which  is  resisting  a  bending  stress  the  upper  part 
of  the  piece  is  in  compression,  and  the  tendency  is  for  the  fibers  to 
crush,  while  the  lower  part  of  the  piece  is  in  tension,  and  the  tendency 
is  for  the  fibers  to  pull  apart. 
To  provide  for  this,  a  form  of 
splice  must  be  selected  which 
combines  the  features  of  the 
tension  and  compression  splices. 
Fig.  64  shows  such  a  splice.  The 
parts  are  scarfed  together,  as  is 
the  case  with  other  splices  de- 
scribed, but  in  this  case  the  end 
of  the  top  piece  is  cut  off  square 
to  offer  the  greatest  possible  resistance  to  crushing,  while  the  under- 
neath piece  is  beveled  on  the  end  as  there  is  no  tendency  for  the 
timbers  to  crush. 

We  have  already  seen  that  in  the  lower  part  of  the  splice,  there 
is  a  tendency  for  the  parts  to  be  pulled  away  from  each  other.  In 
order  to  prevent  this,  a  fish  plate.  A,  is  used,  which  must  be  heavy 
enough  to  take  care  of  all  the  tension,  since  it  is  evident  that  the 
wood  can  not  take  any  of  this.  The  plate  must  be  securely  bolted 
to  both  parts  of  the  splice.  There  is  no  need  of  a  fish  plate  on  the 
top  of  the  pieces  because  there  is  no  tendency  for  the  pieces  to  pull 
apart  on  top,  and  the  bolts  shown  in  the  figure  are  sufficient  to  pre- 
vent them  from  being  displaced. 

In  any  case  where  it  is  not  desirable  to  scarf  the  pieces  in  a 
splice  subjected  to  bending,  the  form 
of  butt  joint  shown  in  Fig.  65  may  be 
used.  The  plates,  either  of  wood  or  iron, 
are  in  this  case  bolted  to  the  sides  of  the 
pieces.  If  wood  is  used,  of  course  the 
plates  must  be  made  very  much  heavier 
than  if  iron  is  used.  In  either  case  they 
must  be  large  enough  to  take  care  of  all  the  bending  stress,  and  a 
sufficient  number  of  bolts  must  be  used  to  fasten  them  securely 
to  both  parts  of  the  splice. 


Fig.  65.     Butt  Joint  with  Plates 


6& 


60  CARPENTRY 

JOINTS  AND  SPLICES  IN  JOINERY 

We  have  considered  a  few  of  the  most  important  joints  and 
spHces  used  in  the  putting  together  of  rough  framing,  and  we  will 
now  take  up  some  of  the  methods  used  in  the  joining  together  of 
finished  work,  where  more  care  is  necessary  and  where  the  joint  or 
splice  must  very  often  be  concealed  from  view.  Much  ingenuity 
has  been  exercised  in  devising  some  of  these  concealed  joints,  and 
great  credit  is  due  to  the  workmen,  unfortunately  unknown,  who 
first  invented  them. 

Splices.  Plain  Butt  Splice.  Fig.  66  shows  the  simplest  kind 
of  splice  which  can  be  used,  similar  in  principle  and  construction 
to  the  butt  joint  already  described.  Here  the  pieces  are  simply 
planed  off  square  and  true  on  the  ends  and  glued  together  with 
nothing  but  the  glue  to  hold  them.  It  is  evidently  not  a  very  strong 
splice  and  should  not  be  used  where  any  tension  or  bending  is  likely 
to  come  at  the  point  where  the  splice  is  made. 

Splice  with  Spline.  Fig.  67  shows  a  splice  which  is  a  slight 
advance  over  the  simple  butt  splice.  It  is  formed  by  ploughing  the 
ends  of  the  pieces  to  be  spliced  after  they  have  been  finished  square 
and  true,  and  inserting  into  the  slot  thus  formed  a  third  piece,  which 
is  called  a  "spline"  or  a  "tongue."  The  spline  is  about  1  inch  or 
less  in  width,  and  about  f  or  i^  inch  thick.  Its  length  is  regulated 
by  the  width  of  the  pieces  to  be  spliced  together.  As  will  be  explained 
later,  this  form  of  connection  is  made  use  of  in  the  construction  of 
the  better  class  of  doors. 

Tongued-and- Grooved  Splice.  This  form  of  splice  is  somewhat 
similar  to  the  splice  with  splines,  the  difference  being  that  only  one 
of  the  pieces  is  ploughed,  and  the  other  is  rabbeted  on  both  sides 
so  as  to  leave  a  projecting  portion  called  a  "tongue"  which  fits  into 
the  groove  formed  by  ploughing  the  other  piece  and  is  fastened  there 
securely  with  glue.  The  tongue  should  be  about  f  inch  thick,  and 
should  project  about  the  same  distance  from  the  main  body  of  the 
piece.  The  groove  in  the  other  piece  must,  of  course,  be  of  corre- 
sponding dimensions.  The  figures  given  are  for  l|-inch  stuff,  which 
is  the  most  common  thickness  of  lumber  used  in  cabinet  work  and 
interior  finishing.  For  other  thicknesses  they  should,  of  course,  be 
varied.  The  tongued-and-grooved  splice,  Fig.  68,  is  used  extensively 
in  flooring. 


TO 


CARPENTRY 


61 


Rabbeted  Splice.  In  Fig.  69  is  shown  what  is  known  as  a  "rab- 
beted splice."  It  is  similar  to  the  halved  splice  described  before  but 
depends  upon  glue  or  small  nails  for  its  strength.  It  must  be  much 
more  carefully  made  than  the  rough  halved  splice.  As  will  be  seen 
each  piece  is  rabbeted  on  one  side  so  that  when  put  together  they 
fit  into  each  other  perfectly.  The  tongue  should  here  be  about  one 
half  of  the  thickness  of  the  piece  and  its  projection  from  the  main 
body  of  the  piece  should  be  about  equal  to  its  thickness.     If  this 


ig.  06.     Plane 

Fig.  67.     Splice 

Fig.  68.    Tongued- 

Fig.  69.     Rab 

Butt  Splice 

with  Spline 

and-Grooved 
Splice 

beted   Splice 

tongue  is  made  too  thin  and  projects  too  much,  it  is  liable  to  curl 
up,  as  the  wood  shrinks  in  drying,  and  make  ugly  ridges  on  the 
finished  work  besides  leaving  the  splice  open. 

Filleted  Splice.  A  form  of  splice  which  is  little  used  in  this 
country,  but  which  can  occasionally  be  worked  to  advantage,  is  the 
filleted  splice  which  is  shown  in  Fig.  70.  It  is  made  by  rabbeting 
the  two  pieces  to  be  spliced,  as  in  the  case  of  the  rabbeted  splice,  but 
this  time  both  on  the  same  side,  and  a  third  piece  called  a  "fillet," 
which  is  somewhat  like  the  spline  in  the  splice  with  a  spline,  is  inserted 


71 


62 


CARPENTRY 


in  the  hollow  space  so  as  to  join  them  together.  This  prevents  any 
possibility  of  an  open  joint.  The  fillet  is  generally  made  somewhat 
less  than  one  half  the  thickness  of  the  pieces  to  be  spliced,  and  is 
about  1  inch  in  width. 

Battened  Splice.  A  variation  of  the  filleted  splice,  which  is 
quite  generally  made  use  of  where  great  strength  is  not  required 
and  it  is  only  necessary  to  cover  up  the  butt  splice  neatly,  is  what 
is  called  a  "battened  splice,"  Fig.  71.       As  will  be  seen  this  con- 


Fig.  70.    Filleted 
Splice 


ig.   71.     Bat- 

Fig. 72.    Tongued- 

Fig.  73.    Tongued 

tened  Splice 

Grooved-and- 

Grooved-and- 

Rabbeted 

Splayed 

Splice 

Splice 

sists  simply  in  covering  the  butt  splice  with  a  small  piece  called  a 
"batten."  The  batten  should  be  about  the  same  size  as  that  given 
above  for  the  size  of  the  fillet,  but  can  be  made  large  or  small  as 
desired. 

Tongued-Grooved-and-Rabheted  Splice.  A  combination  splice, 
which  combines  the  advantages  of  the  tongued-and-grooved  and  the 
rabbeted  splices,  is  shown  in  Fig.  72.  The  groove  is  ploughed  in 
the  end  of  one  piece  and  the  tongue  is  left  projecting  on  the  end  of  the 
other  piece  while,  in  addition  to  this,  one  of  the  pieces  is  rabbeted 


72 


CARPENTRY 


63 


against  the  other.  The  tongue  should  be  about  |  inch  thick  and 
should  project  about  the  same  amount  from  the  end  of  the  piece. 
One  piece  of  the  splice  should  be  rabbeted  against  the  other  a 
distance  of  about  f  inch.  This  splice  is  considerably  stronger  than 
the  simple  tongued-and-grooved  splice,  but  it  is  a  great  deal 
harder  to  make  and  is  more  expensive  as  regards  both  material  and 
labor. 

Tongued-Grooved-and-Splayed  Splice.  Another  variation  of 
the  tongued-and-grooved  splice  consists  in  the  introduction  of  a 
splay  on  one  side  of  the  tongue  and  a  corresponding  splay  on  one  side 
of  the  groove  so  that  they  fit  into  each  other.  Fig.  73  shows  this 
arrangement.  It  makes  a  very  neat  form  of  splice  and  it  looks  well, 
but  it  is  apt  to  be  less  strong  than  the  simple  tongued-and-grooved 
splice  and  much  weaker  than  the  tongued-grooved-and-rabbeted 
splice,  though  stronger  than  the  simple  rabbet.  This  is,  of  course, 
a  very  troublesome  and  expensive  form  of  splice  to  make,  and  it  is, 
in  consequence,  seldom  used. 

Joints.  Miters.  A  miter  is  a  joint  between  two  pieces  which 
come  together  at  a  corner  at  an  angle  of  ninety  degrees  with  each 

other.  Strictly  such  a  joint  can 
be  called  a  mitered  joint  only 
when  each  piece  is  beveled  off  so 
that  each  will  come  to  a  sharp 
edge  at  the  corner.      There  are,  however,  a  number  of 


Fig.  74. 
Miter  Joint 


different  methods  of  cutting  the  pieces  so  that  they  will 
come  together  in  this  way. 

The  simplest  method  is  to  cut  off  each  piece  along  the 
edge  at  a  bevel  of  forty-five  degrees,  so  that  when  they 
are  put  together  they  will  make  an  angle  of  ninety  de- 
grees with  each  other.  This  method  is  shown  in  Fig.  74. 
In  practice,  however,  it  is  very  difficult  to  make  a  perfect  joint  of 
this  kind.  The  joint  is  very  apt  to  open  on  the  outside  of  the 
corner  and  leave  an  unsightly  crack  there,  and  great  care  must  be 
exercised  to  see  that  the  bevels  are  cut  to  exactly  forty-five  degrees, 
as  the  least  variation  will  cause  endless  trouble. 

Miter  with  Spline.  A  simple  mitered  joint  may  be  made  stronger 
by  the  introduction  of  a  spline,  which  is  inserted  at  the  joint  in  a 
direction  perpendicular  to  it.    This  is  shown  in  Fig.  75.    The  sphne 


73 


64 


CARPENTRY 


Fig.  75. 

Miter  with 

Spline 


used  in  this  way  Is  also  known  as  a  "feather."  It  strengthens  the 
joint  very  considerably,  and  a  joint  of  this  kind  is  a  great  improve- 
ment over  the  simple  mitered 
joint.  The  spline  or  feather 
should  be  about  f  inch  wide 
and  about  |  inch  thick.  Its 
length,  of  course,  varies  with  the  width  of  the  pieces  which 
meet  at  the  joint.  Great  care  must  be  taken  in  plough- 
ing out  the  grooves  into  which  the  spline  fits,  for  if  they 
are  not  exactly  the  same  distance  from  the  corner  on  each 
of  the  pieces  the  finished  joint  will  not  be  neat  and  true. 
Rabbeted  Miter  Joint.  There  are  two  or  three  vari- 
ations of  the  simple  mitered  joint  made  by  rabbeting  one 
piece  on  the  other  at  the  corner,  so  that  the  miter  goes  only  part  way 
through  each  piece.  One  of  these  joints  is  shown  in  Fig.  76,  in  which 
only  one  of  the  pieces  is  rabbeted  and  the  other  piece  has  a  simple 
miter.  This  form  of  joint  can  only  be  used  when  one  piece  is  some- 
what wider  than  the  other,  so  that  it  can  be  rabbeted  a  little  and 
still  have  a  miter  which  will  match  the  miter  on  the  narrower  piece. 
If  both  pieces  are  of  the  same  width,  this  can  not  be  done.  Wher- 
ever it  is  possible,  however,  this  joint  is  an  excellent  one  to  use. 

Fig.  77  shows  another  way  of 
rabbeting  a  mitered  joint  which 
is  much  better  than  the  method 
shown  in  Fig.  76.    This  can  be 
done  when  both  pieces  are  of  the 
same  width  or  when  they  are  of  different  widths.    It  is 
much  stronger  than  the  other  method  but  requires  a  little 
more  material  than  the  simple  mitered  joint,  as  some  must 
be  cut  away  from  one  piece  to  form  the  rabbet  and  thus 
much  of  the  timber  Is  wasted.     Very  often,  however,  it 
happens  that  this  timber  would  have  to  be  used  in  any 
case  and,  when  this  occurs,  the  waste  need  not  be  con- 
sidered.   The  increased   strength  of  the  joint  would  seem  to  be 
worth  much  more  than  the   small  additional   amount  of    material 
which  is  required. 

Rabbeted-Mitered-and-Splined  Joint.     In  Fig.  78  is  shown  a  joint 
which  is  mitered  and  at  the  same  time  rabbeted  and  spHned.    In  order 


Fig.  76. 
Rabbeted 
Miter  Joint 


74 


GRACE  MEMORIAL  CHAPEL,  CHICAGO,  ILL. 

Cram,  Goodhue  &  Ferguson,  Architects,  Boston  and  ITew  York. 

interior  of  Gray  Pressed  Brick;  Trimmings  of  Terra-Cotta  of  Color  and  Finish  Similar  to  Bed 

ford  Stone.    Floor  of  9-in.  Welsh  Quarries;  Chancel  Floor  of  Mercer  Tile.    For  Exterior, 

See  Vol.  I,  Page  10;  for  Detail  of  Wood-Carving,  See  Vol.  II,  Page  10. 


rnasT  ncsyo,  plan 


OOUm  EIZXKTION 

STABLE  FOR  MR.  J.  S.  HANNAH,  LAKE  FOREST,  ILL. 

Shepley,  Rutan  &  Coolidge,  Architects,  Chicago,  111. 
For  Location,  See  Vol.  I,  Page  74;  for  Exterior  and  Plans  of  House,  See  Vol.  I,  Pages  74  and  90, 


CARPENTRY 


65 


to  accomplish  this,  one  piece  is  cut  at  an  angle  of  forty-five  degrees 
and  then  rabbeted  to  the  thickness  of  the  other  piece.     The  other 

piece  is  then  cut  with  a  miter  to 

natch  that  left  on  the  first  piece 

and  also  cut  to  match  the  rabbet. 

Both  pieces  are  ploughed  to  take 

a  spline,  and  thus  a  very  strong   joint  is  formed  which 

combines  the  advantages  of  the  mitered  joint  and   the 

rabbeted  or  splined  joints.    The  spline  in  this  case  should 

be  about  f  inch  thick  and  about  1|  inches  wide  and  should, 

in  all  cases  be  of  hard  wood. 

Fig.  77.  .  . 

Rabbeted  Joint  Mitered  and  Keyed.    Another  way  of  strengthening 

a  mitered  joint  is  by  inserting  what  are  known  as  "keys" 
into  the  pieces  on  the  outside  of  the  joint.  These  keys  are  thin  slices 
of  hard  wood  which  are  placed  in  slots  prepared  to  receive  them  and 
held  in  place  by  means  of  glue.  As  the  glue  fastens  them  securely  to 
each  of  the  pieces  at  the  joint,  they  hold  them  firmly  together  and 
prevent  the  joint  from  opening.  Fig.  79  shows  a  joint  of  this  kind. 
The  keys,  of  course,  show  on  the  outside  of  the  joint,  but  they  can  be 
cut  very  thin  and  only  the  edge  of  them  can  be  seen.  The  keys  give 
a  great  amount  of  additional  strength  to  the  connection  and  are  more 
effective  than  is  a  spline  for  preventing  the  joint  from  opening,  as  they 
come  right  out  to  the  edge  of  both  pieces  and  can  be  placed  as  near 
together  as  seems  to  be  necessary.     Sometimes,  instead  of  being 

placed  horizontally,  or  in  a  plane 


perpendicular  to  the  edge  of  the 
joint,  they  are  inclined  as  shown 
in  Fig.  80.      This  arrangement 
strengthens  the  joint  still  more. 
Tenon  Joint  with  Haunch.     In  Fig.  81  is  shown  a  form 
of  joint  called  the  "tenon  joint,"  with  the  addition  of  a 
"haunch"  which  adds  considerably  to  its  strength.     This 
joint  is   used  extensively  in  the  making  of  doors.     One 
of  the  pieces  to  be  joined  is  rabbeted  on  each   side   to 
about  one-third  of  its  depth,  leaving  a  projecting  part 
called  the  "tenon"  about  one-third  the  thickness  of  the 
This  tenon  is  then  rabbeted  on  either  the  top  or  the  bottom, 
but  instead  of  being  cut  entirely  back  to  the  body  of  the  piece,  the 


Fig.  78 

Rabbeted 

Mitered-and- 

Splined  Joint 


piece. 


75 


66 


CARPENTRY 


rabbet  is  stopped  a  little  short  of  this  and  a  "haunch"  is  left.     In 
Fig.  81,  yl  is  the  tenon  and  B  is  the  haunch.     The  other  of  the  two 


Fig.  79. 


Mitered  Joint  Keyed 
Square 


Fig.  80. 


Mitered  Joint  Keyed 
Diagonally 


pieces  which  are  to  be  joined  is  cut  with  mortises  to  receive  the 
tenon  and  the  haunch. in  the  first  piece.  Fig.  81  shows  the  simplest 
form  of  simple  tenon  joint,  but  there  are  many  variations  of  this, 

two  of  which  are  shown  in  Figs. 
82  and  83.  Fig.  82  shows  a  single 
tenon  joint  with  two  tenons, 
while  Fig.  83  shows  a  double 
tenon  joint  which  has  four  ten- 
ons. Both  of  these  joints  have 
haunches  as  well  as  tenons.  The 
one  most  commonly  used  is  that 
shown  in  Fig.  82. 

All  of  the  splices  so  far  con- 
sidered have  been  end  to  end 
splices,  that  is,  they  have  been 
those  kinds  which  would  be  used 
in  fastening  pieces  together  at 
the  ends.  It  often  becomes  nee- 
Fig.  81.     Tenon  Joint  with  Haunch  CSSary,  hoWCVCr,  tO  fastcU  picCCS 


76 


CARPENTRY 


67 


together  side  by  side.  Any  of  the  methods  already  described  for 
spHces  will  be  applicable  in  such  a  case,  but  there  are  in  addition 
a  few  others  which  are  especially  useful,  two  or  three  of  which  will 
now  be  described. 

Dovetail  Key.  This  method  consists  in  the  use  of  a  strip  of  wood 
which  is  applied  to  the  back  of  the  several  pieces  to  be  held  together 
and  prevented  from  slipping  by  means  of  glue.  The  strip,  however, 
is  let  into  the  pieces  a  little  way  in  a  special  manner  known  as  dove- 
tailing, which  prevents  it  from  pulling  out,  and  gives  it  an  especially 


Fig.  82.     Single  Tenon  Joint  with 
Two  Tenons 


Fig.  83. 


Double  Tenon  Joint  with 
Four  Tenons 


strong  hold  on  them.  Fig.  84  shows  this  arrangement  both  in  ele- 
vation and  in  section.  It  is  useful  in  making  up  large  panels  from 
narrow  boards.  In  this  method,  only  one  of  the  pieces  must  be  glued 
to  the  strip,  the  others  being  left  free  to  move. 

Another  method  of  accomplishing  this  same  result  is  by  the  use 
of  a  strip  which  sets  against  the  back  of  the  pieces  to  be  joined,  but 
is  not  let  into  them  at  all.  Fig.  85.  It  is  held  in  place  by  means  of 
screws  which  go  through  slotted  holes  in  the  strip.  This  is  in  order 
that  the  pieces  may  have  a  chance  to  swell  or  shrink  without  bulg- 
ing or  splitting.  It  is  usually  customary  to  employ  brass  slots 
which  are  let  into  the  wood.     These  resist  much  better  the  wear  of 


77 


68 


CARPENTRY 


the  screws  and  prevent  them  from  working  loose.     If,  however,  the 
strip  is  of  very  hard  wood  this  is  not  always  necessary. 

A  third  method  is  that  shown  in  Fig.  86.  This  is  sometimes 
called  the  "button"  method  on  account  of  the  use  of  the  small 
side  pieces  or  buttons  which  fit  over  the  center  strip  and  hold  the 
pieces  of  board  together,  at  the  same  time  allowing  them  to  swell 
or  shrink  freely.     Only  the  small  pieces  are  screwed  to  the  boards, 


Fig.  84.      Method  of  Binding  Boards  Together  by  Means  of  Dovetail  Key 

the  center  strip  being  fastened  to  one  of  the  pieces  only.  This 
arrangement  takes  up  a  little  more  room  than  the  others  and 
looks  somewhat  more  clumsy  but  is  quite  satisfactory  otherwise.  In 
all  three  of  the  methods  described,  the  strip  should  be  from  3  to  4 
inches  wide. 

Dovetailing.  There  is  another  way  of  joining  two  pieces  meet- 
ing at  right  angles,  and  it  is  better  and  stronger  than  any  other  but, 
on  account  of  the  work  involved  in  the  process  of  making  the  joint, 


78 


CARPENTRY 


69 


is  seldom  used  except  in  the  best  work.  This  method  is  known  as 
dovetaihng  and  there  are  three  different  ways  of  arranging  the  dove- 
tails as  will  be  shown.  The  first  is  the  simple  dovetail  which  is  illus- 
trated in  Fig.  87.  As  will  be  seen,  it  consists  in  cutting  tenons  in  the 
end  of  one  piece  and  mortises  in  the  end  of  the  other  piece,  which  are 
of  such  a  shape  as  to  form  a  sort  of  locking  device,  so  that  the  pieces 


Fig.  85.     Method  of  Binding  Boards  Together  by  Means  of  Strip  with  Slots  and  Screws 

can  be  separated  only  by  a  pull  in  one  particular  direction.  The  use 
of  glue  makes  the  joint  still  stronger.  Of  course,  the  forming  of  a 
joint  of  this  kind  requires  a  large  amount  of  time  and  considerable 
skill. 

A  variation  of  the  simple  dovetail  joint  which  is  much  used  in 
the  manufacture  of  drawers  and  in  any  other  position  where  it  is 
desirable  that  the  joint  shall  be  concealed  from  one  side  only,  is 
shown  in  Fig.  88.     This  is  called  a  lap  dovetail,  its  peculiarity 


79 


70 


CARPENTRY 


consisting  in  the  fact  that  in  one  of  the  pieces  the  mortises  are 
not  cut  the  full  thickness,  but  only  partly  through  the  wood, 
so  as  to  leave  a  covering  or  lap,  which  prevents  the  joint  from 
being  seen. 

A  further  development  of  the  dovetail  joint  is  shown  in  Fig.  89. 
In  this  case  the  work  is  so  arranged  that  the  joint  can  not  be  seen 


Fig.  86.     Button  Method  of  Binding  Boards  Together 

from  any  side  of  the  finished  product.  This  is  accomplished  by 
cutting  the  same  tenons  and  mortises  as  in  the  case  of  the  simple 
dovetail  joint,  but  not  directly  on  the  end  of  the  pieces.  They 
are  so  cut  as  to  project  at  an  angle  of  forty-five  degrees,  and  thus 
to  form  a  combination  of  the  mitered  joint  and  the  dovetail  joint 
with  the  tenons  and  mortises  entirely  out  of  sight  when  the  pieces 
have  been  put  together.     This  joint  is  obviously  not  so  strong  as 


80 


CARPENTRY 


71 


Fig.  87.     Simple  Dovetail 


Fig.  88.  Lap  Dovetail 


Fig.  89.    Further  Development  of  Dovetail  Joint 


81 


72 


CARPENTRY 


are  the  other  forms  of  dovetail  joints  because  the  tenons  are  not 
so  large. 

WALL 

Let  us  next  consider  the  framing  of  the  walls  of  a  wood  or  frame 
building.  In  this  work  there  are  two  distinct  methods  of  procedure, 
known,  respectively,  as  "braced  framing"  and  ''balloon  framing," 
of  which  the  first  is  the  older  and  the  stronger  method,  while  the 

second  is  a  modern  development 
and  claims  to  be  more  logical  and 
at  the  same  time  more  econom- 
ical than  the  other.  Balloon  fram- 
ing has  come  into  use  only  since 
about  the  year  1850,  and  it  is 
still  regarded  with  disfavor  by 
many  architects,  especially  by 
those  in  the  eastern  states.  Figs. 
90  and  91  show  the  framing  of 
one  end  of  a  small  building  by 
each  of  the  two  methods,  the 
braced  framing  in  Fig.  90  and 
the  balloon  framing  in  Fig.  91. 
Braced  Frame.  In  a  full-brac- 
ed frame  all  the  pieces  should  be 
fastened  together  with  mortise- 
and-tenon  joints,  but  this  re- 
quirement is  much  modified  in 
common  practice,  a  so-called 
"combination"  frame  being  used 
in  which  some  pieces  are  mortised  together  and  others  are  fastened 
by  means  of  spikes  only.  A  framework  is  constructed  consisting 
in  each  wall  of  the  two  "corner  posts"  AA,  Fig.  90,  the  "sill"  B, 
and  the  "plate"  C,  together  with  a  horizontal  "girt"  D  at  each  story 
to  support  the  floors,  and  a  diagonal  "brace"  E  at  each  corner, 
which,  by  keeping  the  corner  square,  prevents  the  frame  from 
being  distorted. 

Balloon  Frame.  In  a  balloon  frame  there  are  no  braces  or  girts, 
and  the  intermediate  studs  FFF,  Fig.  91,   are  carried   straight  up 


Fig.  90.     Example  of  Braced  Framing 


82 


CARPENTRY 


73 


from  the  sill  H  to  the  plate  K,  with  a  light  horizontal  piece  J,  called 
a  "ribbon"  or  "ledger  board,"  set  into  them  at  each  floor  level  to 
support  the  floor  joists.  This  frame  depends  mainly  upon  the  board- 
ing for  its  stiffness,  but  sometimes  light  diagonal  braces  are  set  into 
the  studs  at  each  corner  to  prevent  distortion.  The  methods  by 
which  all  these  pieces  are  framed  together  will  be  explained  in  detail 
under  the  proper  headings. 

Sill.  The  sill  is  the  first  part  of  the  frame  to  be  set  in  place. 
It  rests  directly  on  the  underpinning  and  extends  all  around  the 
building,  being  jointed  at  the 
corners  and  spliced  where  neces- 
sary; and  since  it  is  subject  to 
much  cutting  and  may  be  called 
upon  to  span  quite  considerable 
openings  (for  cellar  windows,  etc.) 
in  the  underpinning,  it  must  be 
of  a  good  size.  Usually  it  is  made 
of  6  X  6-inch  square  timber,  but 
in  good  work  it  should  be  6  X  8 
inches  and  nothing  lighter  than 
6X6  inches  should  be  used  ex- 
cept for  piazza  sills.  For  piazza 
sills  a  4  X  6-inch  timber  may  be 
used.  The  material  is  generally 
spruce,  although  sometimes  it  is 
Norway  pine  or  native  pine 
(depending  upon  the  locality) . 

The  sill  should  be  placed  on 
the  wall  far  enough  back  from 
the  outside  face  to  allow  for  the  water  table,  which  is  a  part  of  the 
outside  finish,  which  will  be  described  later;  and  1  inch  should  be 
regarded  as  the  minimum  distance  between  the  outside  face  of  the 
sill  and  the  outside  face  of  the  underpinning.  Fig.  92.  A  bed  of 
mortar  A,  preferably  of  cement  mortar,  should  be  prepared  on  the 
top  of  the  underpinning,  in  which  the  sill  C  should  rest;  and  the 
under  side  of  the  sill  should  be  painted  with  one  or  two  coats  of 
linseed  oil  to  prevent  it  from  absorbing  moisture  from  the  masonry. 
In  many  cases,  at  intervals  of  from  8  to  10  feet,  long  bolts  B  are 


f/ 


Fig.  91.      Example  of  Balloon  Framing 


83 


74 


CARPENTRY 


set  into  the  masonry.  These  bolts  extend  up  through  holes  bored 
in  the  sill  to  receive  them  and  are  fastened  at  the  top  of  the  sill 
by  a  washer  and  a  nut  screwed  down  tight.    They  fasten  the  sill, 

and  consequently  the  whole  frame 
securely  to  the  underpinning, 
and  should  always  be  provided 
in  the  case  of  light  frames  in 
exposed  positions. 

The  beams  or  "joists"  D, 
which  form  the  framework  of 
the  first  floor,  are  supported  at 
one  or  both  ends  by  the  sill 
and  may  be  fastened  to  it  in 
any  one  of  several  different 
ways.  The  ideal  method  is  to 
nang  the  joist  in  a  patent  iron  hanger  fastened  to  the  sill,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  93,  where  A  is  the  sill,  B  the  joist,  and  C  the  hanger.  In 
this  case  neither  the  sill  nor  the  joist  need  be  weakened  by  cutting, 
but  it  is  too  expensive  a  method  for  ordinary  work,  although 
the  saving  in  labor  largely  offsets  the  cost  of  the  hanger.  The 
usual  method  is  to  cut  a  mortise  in  the  sill  to  receive  a  tenon  cut 


Fig.  92. 


Method  of  Setting  Underpinning, 
Sill,  and  Joists 


Fig.  93. 


Joist    Hung    in    Patent 
Hanger 


Fig.  94.     Example  of    Sill  Mortised  to 
Receive  Joist 


in  the  end  of  the  joist,  as  shown  at  A  in  Fig.  94.  The  mortises  are 
cut  in  the  inside  upper  corner  of  the  sill.  They  are  about  4  inches 
deep  and  cut  2  inches  into  the  width  of  the  sill  and  are  fixed  in 
position  by  the  spacing  of  the  joists. 


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Mortises  are  also  cut  in  the  sill  to  receive  tenons  cut  in  the 
lower  ends  of  the  studs,  as  shown  at  B  in  Fig.  95.  They  are  cut  the 
full  thickness  of  the  studding,  about  1|  inches  in  the  width  of  the  sill 
and  about  2  inches  deep.  The  position  of  these  mortises  is  fixed  by 
the  spacing  of  the  studding,  and  by  the  condition  that  the  outer 
face  of  the  studding  must 
be  flush  with  the  outer  face 
of  the  sill  in  order  to  leave 
a  plain  surface  for  the  board- 
ing. 

-  The  sills  are  usually 
halved  and  pinned  together 
at  the  corners,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  96;  but  sometimes  they 
are  fastened  together  by 
means  of  a  tenon  A  cut  in  one  sill,  which  fits  into  a  mortise  cut  in 
the  other,  as  shown  in  Fig.  97.  This  method  may  be  stronger  than 
the  other,  but  the  advantage  gained  is  not  sufficient  to  compensate 
for  the  extra  labor  involved.  Sills  under  20  feet  in  length  should  be 
made  in  one  piece,  but  in  some  cases  splicing  may  be  necessary. 
In  such  cases  a  scarf  joint  should  always  be  used,  the  splice  should 
be  made  strong,  and  the  pieces  should  be  well  fitted  together. 


Fig.  95.     Sills  Mortised  to  Receive  Studs 


Fig,  96.     Sills  Halved  and  Pinned  at 
Corners 


Fig.    97.      Sills   Sometimes  Joined  by 
Tenon  Joint 


In  some  parts  of  the  country  it  is  customary  to  "build  up" 
the  sill  from  a  number  of  planks  2  or  3  inches  thick,  which  are  spiked 
securely  together.    A  6  X  6-inch  sill  can  be  made  in  this  way  from 


87 


76 


CARPENTRY 


Fig.  98.     Built  up  Sill 


three  planks  2  inches  thick  and  6  inches  wide,  as  shown  in  Fig.  98. 
Planks  of  any  length  may  be  used,  and  may  be  so  arranged  as  to 
break  joints  with  each  other  in  order  that  the  sill  may  be  continuous 

without  splicing.  It  is  often  easier 
and  cheaper  to  build  up  a  sill  in 
this  way  than  it  is  to  use  a 
large,  solid  timber,  and  if  the 
parts  are  well  spiked  together, 
such  a  sill  is  fully  as  good  as  the 
other.  When  a  sill  of  this  kind 
is  used,  however,  it  should  always 
be  placed  on  the  wall  in  such  a 
way  that  the  planks  of  which  it  is  composed  will  rest  on  their  edges, 
and  not  lie  flat. 

Corner  Posts.  After  the  sill  is  in  place,  the  first  floor  is  usually 
framed  and  roughly  covered  at  once,  to  furnish  a  surface  on  which 
to  work,  and  a  sheltered  place  in  the  cellar  for  the  storage  of  tools 
and  materials,  after  which  the  framing  of  the  wall  is  continued.  The 
corner  posts  are  first  set  up,  then  the  girts  and  the  plate  are  framed 
in  between  them,  with  the  braces  at  the  corners  to  keep  everything 
in  place;  and  lastly  the  frame  is  filled  in  with  studding.  The  corner 
posts  are  pieces  4X8  inches,  or  sometimes  two  pieces  4X4  inches 
placed  close  together.  Corner  posts  must  be  long  enough  to  reach 
from  the  sill  to  the  plate.  The  post  is  really  a  part  of  only  one  of  the 
two  walls  which  meet  at  the  corner,  and  in  the  other  wall  a  "furring 
stud"  of  2  X  4-inch  stuff  is  placed  close  up  against  the  post  so  as  to 


Fig.  99.     Plan  of  Corner  Post 

Details 


Fig.  100.     Plan  of  Another  Form 
of  Corner  Post 


form  a  solid  corner,  and  give  a  firm  nailing  for  the  lathing  in  both 
walls.  This  arrangement  is  shown  in  plan  in  Fig.  99,  A  is  the  corner 
post,  B  the  furring  stud,  C  the  plastering,  and  D  the  boarding  and 
shingling  on  the  outside.    Sometimes  a  4  X  4-inch  piece  is  used  for 


88 


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77 


the  corner  post  and  a  2  X  4-inch  furring  stud  is  set  close  against  it  in 
each  wall  to  form  the  solid  corner,  as  shown  in  plan  in  Fig.  100;  but 
a  4X  4-inch  stick  is  hardly  large  enough  for  the  long  corner  post, 
and  the  best  practice  is  to  use  a  4X8-inch  piece  although  in  very  light 
framing  a  4  X  6-inch  piece  might  be  used.  A  tenon  is  cut  in  the  foot 
of  the  corner  post  to  fit  a  mortise  cut  in  the  sill,  and  mortises  CC, 
Fig.  101,  are  cut  in  the  post  at  the  proper  level  to  receive  the  tenons 
cut  in  the  girts.  Holes  must  also  be  bored  to  receive  the  pins  DD 
which  fasten  these  members  to  the  post. 

The  braces  are  often  only  nailed  in  place,  but  it  is  much  better 
to  cut  tenons  on  the  braces  for  pins,  as  shown  at  A  in  Fig.  102.  The 
plate  is  usually  fastened  to  the  posts  by  means  of  spikes  only,  but 
it  may  be  mortised  to  receive  a  tenon  cut  in  the  top  of  the  post. 


Fig.  101.    Details  of  Tenon  Joints  for 
Corners 


Fig.  102.    Corner  Bracing  with  Mortise- 
and-Tenon  Joints 


In  the  case  of  a  balloon  frame  no  mortises  need  be  cut  in  the 
posts  for  the  girts  or  braces,  as  they  are  omitted  in  this  frame;  but 
the  post  must  be  notched  instead,  as  shown  in  Fig.  103,  to  receive 
the  ledger  board  or  ribbon  and  the  light  braces  which  are  sometimes 
used. 

Girts.  The  girts  are  always  made  of  the  same  width  as  the 
posts,  being  flush  with  the  face  of  the  post  both  outside  and  inside, 
and  the  depth  is  usually  8  inches,  although  sometimes  a  6-inch  timber 
may  be  used.  The  size  is,  therefore,  usually  4X8  inches.  A  tenon 
at  each  end  fits  into  the  mortise  cut  in  the  post,  and  the  whole  is 
secured  by  means  of  a  pin  DD,  as  shown  in  Fig.  101.  The  pin 
should  always  be  of  hard  wood   and  about  |  inch  in  diameter. 


80 


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CARPENTRY 


It  is  evident  that  if  the  girts  in  two  adjoining  walls  were  framed 
into  the  corner  post  at  the  same  level,  the  tenons  on  the  two  girts 
would  conflict  with  each  other.  For  this  reason  the  girts  A  which 
run  parallel  with  the  floor  joists  are  raised  above  the 
girts  B  on  which  these  joints  rest,  and  are  called 
"raised  girts"  to  distinguish  them  from  the  others  which 
are  called  "dropped  girts."  The  floor  joists  are  carried 
by  the  dropped  girts,  and  the  raised  girts  are  so  placed 
that  they  are  just  flush  on  top  with  the  joists  which 
are  parallel  to  them. 

Ledger  Board.  The  heavy  girts  are  used  only  in 
the  braced  frame.  In  the  balloon  frame,  light  pieces 
called  "ledger  boards"  or  "ribbons"  are  substituted  for 
them.  These  are  usually  made  about  |  inch  thick  and 
6  or  7  inches  deep,  and  are  notched  into  the  posts  and 
intermediate  studs  instead  of  being  framed  into  them  as 
in  the  braced  frame.  This  notching  is  shown  in  Fig.  104,  on  which  A 
is  the  ledger  board  and  B  the  stud.  The  ledger  boards  themselves  are 
not  cut  at  all,  but  the  floor  joists  which  they  carry  are  notched  over 


Fig.  103. 

Notched  Post 

in  Balloon 

Framing 


Fig.  104.    Notched  Stud  with 
Ledger  Board 


Fig.  105.    Ledger  Board  with  Notched 
Floor  Joist  in  Place 


them,  as  shown  in  Fig.  105,  and  spiked  to  them  and  to  the  studding. 
In  Fig.  105,  A  is  the  joist,  B  the  ledger  board,  and  C  the  stud.  Even 
in  the  braced  frame  a  ledger  board  is  usually  employed  to  support 
the  joists  of  the  attic  floor,  which  carry  little  or  no  weight.  The 
disadvantage  of  the  ledger  board  is  that,  as  a  tie  between  the  corner 


90 


a  S 

O)  O 
to  O 

2  be 


CARPENTRY 


79 


posts,  It  is  less  effective  than  the  girt,  and  consequently  a  wall  in  which 
it  has  been  substituted  for  the  girt  is  not  as  stiff  as  one  in  which  the 
girt  is  used. 

Plate.  The  plate  serves  two  purposes :  First,  to  tie  the  studding 
together  at  the  top  and  form  a  finish  for  the  wall;  and  second,  to 
furnish  a  support  for  the  lower  ends  of  the 
rafters.  See  Fig.  106.  It  is  thus  a  connect- 
ing link  between  the  wall  and  the  roof,  just  as 
the  sill  and  the  girts  are  connecting  links 
between  the  floors  and  the  wall.  Some- 
times the  plate  is  also  made  to  support  the 
attic  floor  joists,  as  shown  in  Fig.  107,  in 
which  ^  is  a  rafter,  B  the  joist  spiked  to  the 
rafter,  C  the  plate  built  up  from  2  X  4-inch 
pieces,  and  D  the  wall  stud.  It  acts  in  this 
case  like  a  girt,  but  this  arrangement  is  not 
very  common,  the  attic  floor  joists  usually  being  supported  on  a 
ledger  board,  as  shown  in  Fig.  105.  The  plate  is  merely  spiked  to 
the  corner  posts  and  to  the  top  of  the  studding;  but  at  the  corner 
where  the  plates  in  two  adjacent  walls  come  together,  they  should  be 


Fig.  106.     Section  of  Plate 
between  Studs  and  Rafters 


Fig.  107.     Plate  as  Support 
for  Attic  Floor 


Fig.  108.    Plates  Used  in  Balloon 
Framing 


connected  by  a  framed  joint,  usually  halved  together  in  the  same  way 
as  the  sill.  In  the  braced  frame,  a  fairly  heavy  piece,  usually  a  4X6 
inch  is  used,  although  a  4  X  4  inch  is  probably  sufficiently  strong. 
In  a  balloon  frame  the  usual  practice  is  to  use  two  2  X  4-inch  pieces 
placed  one  on  top  of  the  other  and  breaking  joints,  as  shown  at  A 


01 


80 


CARPENTRY 


in  Fig.  108,  in  order  to  form  a  continuous  piece.  The  corner  joint 
is  then  formed,  as  shown  at  B.  No  cutting  is  done  on  the  plate 
except  at  the  corners,  the  rafters  and  the  attic  floor  joists  being  cut 
over  it,  as  shown  in  Figs.  107  and  109. 

Braces.  Braces  are  used  as  permanent  parts  of  the  structure 
only  in  braced  frames,  and  serve  to  stiffen  the  wall,  to  keep  the  cor- 
ners square  and  true,  and  to  prevent  the  frame  from  being  distorted 
by  lateral  forces,  such  as  wind.  In  a  full-braced  frame,  a  brace  is 
placed  wherever  a  sill,  girt,  or  plate  makes 
an  angle  with  a  corner  post,  as  shown  at  E 
in  Fig.  90.  Braces  are  placed  so  as  to  make 
an  angle  of  forty-five  degrees  with  the  post^ 
and  should  be  long  enough  to  frame  into 
the  corner  post  at  a  height  of  from  one-third 
to  one-half  the  height  of  the  story.  This 
construction  is  often  modified  in  practice, 
and  the  braces  are  placed  as  shown  at  A  in 
Fig.  109.  Such  a  frame  is  not  quite  so  stiff 
and  strong  as  the  regular  braced  frame,  but 
it  is  sufficiently  strong  in  most  cases. 

The  braces  are  made  the  same  width  as 
the  posts  and  girts,  usually  4  inches,  to  be 
flush  with  these  pieces  both  outside  and  inside, 
and  are  made  of  3 X  4-inch  or  4X  4-inch  stuff. 
They  are  framed  into  the  posts  and  girders 
or  sills,  by  means  of  a  tenon  cut  in  the  end 
of  the  brace,  and  a  mortise  cut  in  the  post 
or  girt,  and  are  secured  by  a  hardwood  pin. 
or  I  inch  in  diameter.  The  connection  is 
shown  in  Fig.  102. 

In  a  balloon  frame  there  are  no  permanent  braces,  but  light 
strips  are  nailed  across  the  corners  while  the  framework  is  being 
erected,  and  before  the  boarding  has  been  put  on,  to  keep  the  frame 
in  place.  As  soon  as  the  outside  boarding  is  in  place  these  are 
removed.  This  practice  is  also  modified,  and  sometimes  light  braces 
are  used  as  permanent  parts  of  even  a  balloon  frame.  They  are  not 
framed  into  the  other  members,  however,  but  are  merely  notched 
into  them  and  spiked,  as  shown  in  Fig.  110.     A  is  the  brace,  i?  the 


Fig.  109.     Braced  Frame 


The  pin  should  be 


92 


CARPENTRY 


81 


sill,  C  the  corner  post,  and  DD  are  studs.  In  such  a  case  every 
stud  must  be  notched  to  receive  the  brace,  which  is  really  the  same 
as  the  temporary  brace  mentioned  above,  except  that  it  is  notched 
into  the  studs  instead  of  being  merely  nailed  to  them,  and  is  not 
removed  when  the  boarding  is  put  on.  These  braces  are  usually 
made  of  IX  3-inch  stuff. 

Studding.  When  the  sill,  posts,  girts,  plates,  and  braces  are  in 
place,  the  only  step  that  remains  to  complete  the  rough  framing  of 
the  wall  is  the  filling  in  of  this  framework  with  studding.  The  stud- 
ding is  of  two  kinds,  viz,  the  heavy  pieces  which  form  the  frames  for 
the  door  and  window  openings  and  the  stops 
for  the  partitions;  and  the  lighter  pieces 
which  are  merely  "filling-in"  studs,  and  are 
known  by  that  name,  or  as  "intermediate" 
studding. 


Fig.  110.     Light  Braces   for  Balloon 
Frame 


Fig.    111.    Construction    of 
Door  and  Window  Frames 


The  frames  for  the  door  and  window  openings  are  usually  made 
in  a  braced  frame,  from  4X  4-inch  pieces.  A  vertical  stud  A  A, 
Fig.  Ill,  is  placed  on  each  side  of  the  opening,  the  proper  distance 
being  left  between  them,  and  horizontal  pieces  BB  are  framed  into 
them  at  a  proper  level  to  form  the  top  and  the  bottom  of  the  opening. 
In  all  good  work  a  small  truss  is  formed  above  each  opening  by  set- 
ting up  two  pieces  of  studding  CC  over  the  opening,  in  the  form  of 
a  triangle.  This  is  to  receive  any  weight  which  comes  from  the 
studding  directly  above  the  opening,  and  to  carry  it  to  either  side 
of  the  opening  where  it  is  received  by  the  studding  and  in  this  way 


93 


82 


CARPENTRY 


carried  down  to  the  sill.  Such  a  truss  is  shown  in  Fig.  111.  The 
pieces  used  are  3X4  inches  or  4X4  inches,  and  may  be  either  framed 
into  the  other  members  or  merely  spiked.  There  should  be  a  space 
D  of  at  least  1  inch  between  the  piece  B  forming  the  top  of  the 
window  frame  and  the  piece  E  forming  the  bottom  of  the  truss,  so 
that  if  the  truss  sags  at  all  it  will  not  affect  the  window  frame.  This 
is  a  point  that  is  not  generally  recognized.  The  piece  B  is  usually 
made  to  serve  both  as  the  top  of  the  window  and  bottom  of  the  truss. 


Fig.  112.     Framing  Details  of  Window  Opening  in  Balloon  Frame  Building 

Fig.  112  shows  the  framing  for  the  top  of  a  window  opening  in 
a  balloon-framed  building,  where  the  ledger  board  is  partly  sup- 
ported by  the  studs  directly  over  the  opening.  Since  the  floor  joists 
rest  on  the  ledger  board,  there  may  be  considerable  weight  trans- 
ferred to  these  studs;  and  in  order  to  prevent  the  bottom  of  the 
truss  from  sagging  under  this  weight,  an  iron  rod  should  be  inserted 
as  shown. 

In  the  balloon  frame,  the  door  and  window  studs  are  almost 


04 


CARPENTRY 


83 


Fig.    113.     Door   and  Win- 
dow Studs  in  Balloon 
Frame 


always  made  of  two  2  X  4-inch  pieces  placed  close  together,  and  in 
this  case  the  connection  of  the  piece  forming  the  top  and  bottom 
of  the  frame  with  those  forming  the  sides  is  made  as  shown  at  A  in 
Fig.  113.  It  should  be  noticed  that  in  a  balloon  frame  all  studding 
is  carried  clear  up  from  the  sill  to  the  plate,  so 
that  if  there  is  an  opening  in  the  wall  of  the 
first  story,  and  no  corresponding  openings  in 
those  of  the  second  or  third  story,  the  door 
and  window  studding  must  still  be  carried 
double,  clear  up  to  the  plate,  and  material 
is  thus  wasted.  In  designing  for  balloon 
frames,  therefore,  it  is  well  to  take  care  that 
the  window  openings  in  the  second  story 
come  directly  above  those  in  the  first  story 
wherever  this  is  possible.  The  same  difficulty 
does  not  occur  in  the  case  of  a  braced  frame, 
because  in  such  a  frame  the  studding  in  each 
story  is  independent  of  that  in  the  story 
above  or  below  it;  the  window  openings  may,  therefore,  be  arranged 
independently  in  the  different  stories  according  to  the  requirements 
of  the  design. 

Nailing  Surfaces.  Whenever  a  partition  meets  an  outside  wall, 
a  stud  wide  enough  to  extend  beyond  the  partition  on  both  sides 
and  to  afford  a  solid  nailing  for  the  lathing  must  be  inserted.  A 
nailing  surface  must  be  provided  for  the  lathing  on  both  the  outside 
wall  and  the  partition,  and  the  first  stud  in  the  partition  wall  is, 
therefore,  set  close  up  against  the  wall  stud,  forming  a  solid  corner. 
This  arrangement  is  shown  in 
plan  in  Fig.  114.  The  large  wall 
stud  A  is  usually  made  of  a 
4X  8-inch  piece  set  flatwise  in 
the  wall,  so  that  if  the  partition 
is,  say  4  inches  wide,  there  is  a 
clear  nailing  surface  of  2  inches 
on  each  side  of  the  partition.  A  4  X  6-inch  piece  could  also  be  used 
here,  leaving  a  clear  nailing  surface  of  1  inch  on  each  side  of  the 
partition. 

Sometimes    the    same    thing    is    accomplished    by    using    two 


3 


Fig.  114.     Plan  of  Studding  in   Outer  Wall 
Opposite  Partition 


OS 


84 


CARPENTRY 


4X  4-inch  pieces  placed  close  together,  as  shown  in  plan  in  Fig,  115, 
instead  of  one  4X  8-inch  piece.  Sometimes  two  pieces,  2X4  inches  or 
3X4  inches,  are  used,  placed  far  enough  apart  so  that  they  afford  a 
space  for  nailing  on  each  side  of  the  partition,  as  shown  in  plan  in 


Fig.  115.  Two-Piece  Stud  in  Outer 
Wall  Opposite  Partition 


Fig.  116.    Placing  of  2  X4  Studs  to 
Give  Nailing  Surface 


Fig.  116.  Whenever  this  is  done,  small  blocks  A,  Fig.  117,  should 
be  set  in  between  the  two  studs  at  intervals  of  2  to  3  feet  throughout 
their  entire  height  in  order  to  give  them  added  stiffness  and  make 
them  act  together. 

The  end  in  view  in  every  case  is  to  obtain  a  solid  corner  on  each 
side  of  the  partition  where  it  joins  the  wall,  and  any  construction 
which  accomplishes  this  is  good.  In  the  best  work,  however,  the 
4 X  8-inch  solid  piece  is  used,  and  this  construction  can  always  be 
depended  upon.    It  makes  no  difference  what  the  angle  between  the 

wall  and  the  partition  may  be, 
but  usually  this  angle  is  a  right 
angle. 

Intermediate  Studding.  The 
pieces  which  make  up  the  largest 
part  of  the  wall  frame  are  the 
"filKng-in"  or  "intermediate" 
studs.  These,  as  the  name  im- 
plies, are  used  merely  to  fill  up 
the  frame  made  by  the  other 
heavier  pieces,  and  afford  a  nail- 
ing surface  for  the  boarding, 
which  covers  the  frame  on  the 
outside,  and  the  lathing,  which 
covers  it  on  the  inside.  The  fill- 
ing-in  studs  are  usually  placed  16  inches  apart,  measured  from  the 
center  of  one  stud  to  the  center  of  the  next.     In  especially  good 


Fig.  117.    Placing  of  Block  Stiffeners  in  Con- 
struction Shown  in  Fig.  116 


96 


CARPENTRY 


85 


work  they  are  sometimes  placed  only  12  inches  apart  on  centers,  but 
this  is  unusual.  In  no  case  should  they  be  placed  more  than  16 
inches  apart,  even  in  the  lightest  work.  The  studs  are  made  the 
full  width  of  the  wall,  usually  4  inches,  but  sometimes  in  large 
buildings  (such  as  churches)  5  or  even  6  inches  and  their  thickness 
is  almost  always  2  inches,  2X4  inches  being  the  more  usual  dimen- 
sions. The  lengths  of  the  intermediate  studs  are  made  to  fit  the  rest 
of  the  frame. 

In  the  braced  frame,  there  must  necessarily  be  a  great  deal  of 
cutting  of  the  intermediate  studding,  because  all  the  large  pieces  are 
made  the  full  width  of  the  wall  and  the  intermediate  stud- 
ding must  be  cut  to  fit  between  them.  In  the  balloon 
frame,  however,  the  intermediate  studding  in  all  cases 
extends  clear  up  from  the  sill  to  the  plate,  and  no  cut- 
ting is  necessary  except  the  notching  to  receive  the  other 
parts  of  the  frame.    See  Fig.  91. 

In  a  balloon  frame  it  often  happens  that  the  studs  are 
not  long  enough  to  reach  from  the  sill  to  the  plate  and 
they  must  be  pieced  out  with  short  pieces  which  are 
spliced  onto  the  long  stud.  This  splicing  is  called  "fish- 
ing," and  it  is  accomplished  by  nailing  a  short  thin  strip 
of  wood  A  A  on  each  side  of  the  stud,  as  shown  in  Fig.  54, 
in  order  to  join  the  two  pieces  firmly  to- 
gether. The  strips  should  be  well  nailed  to  each  piece 
in  order  to  give  the  required  strength. 

All  door  and  window  studs  should  have  a  tenon  cut  at 
the  foot  of  the  piece  to  fit  a  mortise  cut  in  the  sill.  Inter- 
mediate studs  are  merely  spiked  to  the  sill  without  being 
framed  into  it.  The  tenons  are  cut  in  two  different  ways, 
as  shown  in  Figs.  118  and  119.  They  are  always  made 
the  full  thickness  of  the  piece,  and  by  the  first  method 
they  are  placed  in  the  middle  of  the  piece,  as  shown. 
The  width  of  the  tenon  is  about  1|  inches,  leaving  1^  inches 
on  the  outside  and  1  inch  on  the  inside  of  the  stud. 
Another  way  is  to  make  the  tenon  on  the  inside  of  the 
stud,  as  shown  in  Fig.  119,  the  tenon  being  1|  inches 
wide  as  before.  There  is  •  no  choice  between  these  methods,  both 
being  good. 


97 


86 


CARPENTRY 
PARTITIONS 


The  studding  used  in  partition  walls  is  usually  of  2 X 4-inch  stuff, 
although  2  X  3-inch  studding  may  sometimes  be  used  to  advantage  if 
the  partition  does  not  support  any  floor  joists. 

Furring  Walls.  The  partition  walls  are  made  4  inches  wide,  the 
same  as  in  the  outer  walls,  except  in  the  case  of  so-called  "furring" 


Fig.  120.     Plan  Showing  Plaster  Applied  Directlj-  to  Chimney 
Brickwork 


partitions.  These  are  built  around  chimney  breasts  and  serve  to 
conceal  the  brickwork  and  furnish  a  surface  for  plastering.  They 
are  formed  by  placing  the  studding  flatwise,  in  order  to  make  a  thin 
wall;  and  as  it  is  usually  specified  that  no  woodwork  shall  come 
within  1  inch  of  any  chimney,  a  1-inch  space  is  left  between  the 
brickwork  and  the  furring  wall.  It  is  possible  to  apply  the  plaster 
directly  to  the  brickwork,  and  this  is  sometimes  done,  but  there  is 


Fig.  121.     Plan  Showing  Construction  of  Furring  Wall 

always  danger  that  cracks  will  appear  in  the  plastering  at  the  corner 
A,  Fig.  120,  between  the  chimney  breasts  and  the  outside  wall.  This 
cracking  is  due  to  the  unequal  settlement  of  the  brickwork  and  the 
woodwork  since  the  plastering  goes  with  the  wall  to  which  it  is 


98 


CARPENTRY 


87 


applied.  The  method  of  constructing  a  furring  wall  is  shown  in 
plan  in  Fig.  121.  A  A  are  the  furring  studs,  B  is  the  plastering, 
and  CC  the  studding  in  the  outside  wall.  The  arrangement  without 
the  furring  wall  is  shown  in  plan  in  Fig.  120.  If  there  are  any  open- 
ings in  the  furring  wall,  such  as  fireplaces,  or  "thimbles"  for  stove 
pipes,  it  is  necessary  to  frame  around  them  in  the  same  v/ay  as 
was  explained  for  door  and  window  openings  in  the  outside  walls. 
See  Fig.  122.  AA  are  furring  studs,  BB  are  pieces  forming  the  top 
and  bottom  of  the  opening. 
If  the  outside  walls  of 
the  building  are  of  brick 
or  stone,  a  wood  "furring" 


Fig. 


122.     Furring   Strip  Frames 
Around  Openings 


Fig.  123.    Furring  strips  on  Outside  Wall 


wall  is  usually  built  just  inside  of  the  outer  wall;  this  furnishes  a 
surface  for  plastering  and  for  nailing  the  inside  finish.  The  stud- 
ding for  these  walls  is  2  X  4  inches  or  2  X  3  inches  or  1X2  inches 
set  close  up  against  the  masonry  wall  and  preferably  spiked  to  it. 
See  Fig.  123.  Spikes  are  usually  driven  directly  into  the  mortar 
between  the  bricks  or  stones  of  the  wall,  but  sometimes  wood  blocks 
or  wedges  are  inserted  in  the  wall  to  afford  a  nailing  surface. 

Wherever  a  wood  partition  wall  meets  a  masonry  exterior 
wall  at  an  angle,  the  last  stud  of  the  partition  wall  should  be  securely 
spiked  in  the  masonry  wall,  to  prevent  cracks  in  the  plastering. 


90 


88 


CARPENTRY 


■-  Cap  and  Sole.  All  partition  walls  are  finished  at  the  top  and 
bottom  by  horizontal  pieces,  called,  respectively,  the  "cap"  and  the 
"sole."  The  sole  rests  directly  on  the  rough  flooring  whenever  there 
is  no  partition  under  the  one  which  is  being  built;  but  if  there  is  a 
partition  in  the  story  below,  the  cap  of  the  lower  partition  is  used 
as  the  sole  for  the  one  above.  The  sole  is  made  wider  than  the  stud- 
ing  forming  the  partition  wall,  so  that  it  projects  somewhat  on  each 
side  and  gives  a  nailing  surface  for  the  plasterer's  grounds  and  for  the 
inside  finish.  It  is  usually  made  about  2  inches  thick  and  5|  inches 
wide,  when  the  partition  is  composed  of  4-inch  studding,  and  this 
leaves  a  nailing  surface  of  |  of  an  inch  on  each  side.  The  sole  is 
shown  at  B  in  Fig.  124.  The  cap  is  usually  made  the  same  width  as 
the  studding,  and  2  inches  thick,  so  that  a  2  X  4-inch  piece  may  be 
used  in  most  cases ;  but  if  the  partition  is  called  upon  to  support  the 


Fig.  124.    Partition  Framing  Showing  Sole 


Fig.  125.    Partition  Framing  Showing  Cap 


floor  beams  of  the  floor  above,  the  cap  may  have  to  be  made  3  or 
even  4  inches  thick,  and  some  architects  favor  the  use  of  hard  wood 
such  as  Georgia  pine  for  the  partition  caps.  The  cap  is  shown  at  A, 
Fig.  125. 

Bridging.  In  order  to  stiffen  the  partitions,  short  pieces  of 
studding  are  cut  in  between  the  regular  studding  in  such  a  way  as  to 
connect  each  piece  with  the  pieces  on  each  side  of  it.  Thus,  if  one 
piece  of  studding  is  for  any  reason  excessively  loaded,  it  will  not  have 
to  carry  the  whole  load  alone  but  will  be  assisted  by  the  other  pieces. 
This  operation  is  called  "bridging,"  and  there  are  two  kinds,  which 


100 


CARPENTRY 


89 


may  be  called  "horizontal  bridging"  and  "diagonal  bridging."  The 
horizontal  bridging  consists  of  pieces  set  in  horizontally  between  the 
vertical  studding  to  form  a  continuous  horizontal  line  across  the  wall, 
every  other  piece,  however,  being  a  little  above  or  below  the  next 
piece  as  shown  in  Fig.  126.  The  pieces  are  2  inches  thick  and  the  full 
width  of  the  studding;  and  in  addition  to  strengthening  the  wall, 
they  prevent  fire  or  vermin  from  passing  through,  and  also  may  be 
utilized  as  a  nailing  surface  for  any  inside  finish  such  as  wainscoting 
or  chair  rails. 

The  second  method,  which  we  have  called  diagonal  bridging, 
is  more  effective  in  preventing  the  partition  from  sagging  than  is  the 


Fig.  126.     Horizontal  Bridging 


Fig.  127.     Diagonal  Bridging 


straight  bridging,  but  both  methods  may  be  used  with  equal  pro- 
priety. In  the  diagonal  bridging  the  short  pieces  are  set  in  diagonally, 
as  is  shown  in  Fig.  127,  instead  of  horizontally,  between  the  vertical 
studding.  This  method  is  certainly  more  scientific  than  the  other, 
since  a  continuous  truss  is  formed  across  the  wall. 

All  partitions  should  be  bridged  by  one  of  these  methods,  at 
least  once  in  the  height  of  each  story,  and  the  bridging  pieces  should 
be  securely  nailed  to  the  vertical  studding  at  both  ends.  It  is  cus- 
tomary to  specify  two  tenpenny  nails  in  each  end  of  each  piece. 
Bridging  should  be  placed  in  the  exterior  walls  as  well  as  in  the 


101 


90 


CARPENTRY 


partition  walls;  and  as  a  further  precaution  against  fire,  it  is  good 
practice  to  lay  three  or  four  courses  of  brickwork,  in  mortar,  on  the 
top  of  the  bridging  in  all  walls,  to  prevent  the  fire  from  gaining  head- 
way in  the  wall  before  burning  through  and  being  discovered.  This 
construction  is  shown  in  Fig.  128. 

Special  Partitions.    A  partition  in  which  there  is  a  sliding  door 
must  be  made  double  to  provide  a  space  into  which  the  door  may 

slide  when  it  is  open.  This  is 
done  by  building  two  walls  far 
enough  apart  to  allow  the  door 
to  slide  in  between  them,  the 
studding  being  of  2  X  4-inch  or 
2  X  3-inch  stuff,  and  placed  either 
flatwise  or  edgewise  in  the  wall. 
If  the  studding  is  placed  flat- 
wise in  the  wall  a  thinner  wall 
is  possible,  but  the  construction 
is  not  so  good  as  in  the  case 
where  the  studs  are  placed  edge- 
wise. If  the  partition  is  to  sup- 
port a  floor,  one  wall  must  be 
made  at  least  4  inches  thick  to 
support  it,  and  the  studs  in  the  other  wall  may  then  be  placed 
flatwise  if  desired,  and  the  floor  supported  entirely  on  the  thick 
wall.  The  general  arrangement  is  shown  in  plan  in  Fig.  129.  It  is 
better  to  use  2  X  4-inch  studding  set  edgewise  in  each  wall  so  as  to 
make  two  3-inch  walls  with  space  enough  between  to  allow  the 
door  to   slide  freely  after  the 


Fig.  128.     Horizontal  Bridging  with 
Bricks  Laid  on  Top 


pocket    has    been    lined   with 
sheathing. 

A  piece  of  studding  A, 
Fig.  130,  should  be  cut  in  hori- 
zontally between  each  pair  of 
studs  B,  8  or  10  inches  above 
the  top  of  the  door  in  order  to  keep  the  pocket  true  and  square.  The 
pocket  should  be  lined  on  the  inside  with  matched  sheathing  C. 

It  is  well  known  that  ordinary  partitions  are  very  good  con- 
ductors of  sound;  and  in  certain  cases,  as  in  tenement  houses,  this  is 


Fig.   129.    Section  of  Partition  Construction 
for    Sliding   Doors 


102 


CARPENTRY 


91 


objectionable,  so  that  special  construction  is  required.    If  two  walls 
are  built  entirely  separate  from  each  other  and  not  touching  at  any- 
place, the  transmission  of  sound  is  much  retarded;  and  if  heavy  felt 
paper  or  other  material  is  put  in  between 
the  walls,  the  partition  is  made  still  more 
nearly  soundproof.     In  order  to  decrease 
the  thickness  of  such  a  wall  as  much  as 
possible,  the  "staggered"  partition  is  used, 
in  which  there  are  two  sets  of  studding, 
one  for  each  side  of  the  wall,  but  ar- 
ranged alternately  instead  of  in  pairs 
as  in  the  double  partition.    The  arrange- 
ment is  shown  in  plan  in  Fig.  131.    The 
two  walls  are  entirely  separate  from  each 
other  and  the  felt  paper  may  be  worked 
in  between  the  studs  as  shown,  or  the 
whole  space  may  be  packed  full  of  some 
soundproof  and  fireproof  material  such 
as  mineral  wool.     There  is  a  so-called 
"quilting   paper"    or    "sheathing-quilt" 
manufactured   from  sea  weed,  which  is  much   used   for   this  pur- 
pose.   The  inside  edges  of  the  two  sets  of  studs  are  usually  placed 
on  a  line,  making  the  whole  wall  8  inches  thick,  where  4-inch  studding 
is  used,  and  the  studs  may  be  placed  about   16  inches  on  cen- 
ters in  each  wall.     Each  set  of  studding  should  be  bridged  sep- 
arately. 

Another  case  where  a  double  wall  may  be  necessary,  is  where 
pipes  from  heaters  or  from  plumbing  fixtures  are  to  be  carried  in  the 
y..a.;M--M^.:..'...Lu,......u.,u...K-,.,.,.....^  ...................................  .,      wall.      In   case   of  hot    pipes, 

care  must  be  taken  to  have 
the  space  large  enough  so  that 
the  woodwork  will  not  come 
dangerously  near  the  pipes. 
An  important  matter  in  connection  with  the  framing  of  the 
partitions  is  the  way  in  which  they  are  supported;  but  this  involves 
knowledge  of  the  framing  of  a  floor  and,  therefore,  it  will  be  left  for 
the  present.  It  will  be  taken  up  after  we  have  considered  the  floor 
framing. 


Fig.  130.     Details  of  Bracing  in 
Double  Partition 


Fig.    131.      Partition   with  Stagger  Studding 
to  Prevent  Sound  Transmission 


103 


92  CARPENTRY 

SHRINKAGE  AND  SETTLEMENT 

An  important  point  which  must  be  considered  in  connection 
with  the  framing  of  the  walls  and  partitions,  is  the  settlement  due  to 
the  shrinkage  of  timber  as  it  seasons  after  being  put  in  place.  Tim- 
ber always  shrinks  considerably  ACROSS  the  grain,  but  very  little 
in  the  direction  of  the  grain;  so  it  is  the  horizontal  members,  such  as 
the  sills,  girts,  and  joists,  which  cause  trouble,  and  not  the  vertical 
members,  such  as  posts  and  studding.  Every  inch  of  horizontal 
timber  between  the  foundation  wall  or  interior  pier  and  the  plate  is 
sure  to  contract  a  certain  amount,  and  as  the  walls  and  partitions 
are  supported  on  these  horizontal  members,  they,  too,  must  settle 
somewhat.  If  the  exterior  and  interior  walls  settle  by  exactly  the 
same  amount,  no  harm  will  be  done,  since  the  floors  and  ceilings  will 
remain  level  and  true,  as  at  first;  but  if  they  settle  unequally,  all  the 
levels  in  the  building  will  be  disturbed,  and  the  result  will  be  crack- 
ing of  the  plastering,  binding  of  doors  and  windows,  and  a  general 
distortion  of  the  whole  frame,  a  condition  which  must  be  avoided  if 
possible. 

It  is  evident  that  one  way  to  prevent  unequal  settlement,  so 
far  at  least  as  it  is  due  to  the  shrinkage  of  the  timber,  is  to  make  the 
amount  of  horizontal  timber  in  the  exterior  and  interior  walls  equal. 
Thus,  starting  at  the  bottom,  we  have  from  the  masonry  of  the  founda- 
tion wall  to  the  top  of  the  first  floor  joists  in  the  outside  walls  10 
inches,  or  the  depth  of  the  joists  themselves,  since  these  rest  directly 
on  the  top  of  the  wall.  In  the  interior,  we  have,  if  the  joints  are 
framed  flush  into  a  girder  of  equal  depth,  the  same  amount,  so  that 
here  the  settlement  will  be  equal.  But  the  studding  in  the  exterior 
wall  rests,  not  on  the  top  of  the  joists,  but  on  the  top  of  the  6-inch 
sill,  while  the  interior  studding  rests  on  top  of  the  10-inch  girder. 
Here  is  an  inequality  of  4  inches  which  must  be  equalized  before 
the  second  floor  level  is  reached.  If  the  outer  ends  of  the  second- 
floor  joists  rest  on  the  top  of  an  8-inch  girt,  and  the  inner  ends  on  a 
4-inch  partition  cap,  this  equalizes  the  horizontal  timber  inside  and 
outside,  and  the  second  floor  is  safe  against  settlement.  The  same 
process  of  equalization  of  the  horizontal  timber  may  be  continued 
for  each  floor  up  to  the  top  of  the  building,  and  if  this  is  carefully 
done  it  will  go  far  toward  preventing  the  evils  resulting  from  settle- 
ment and  shrinkage. 


104 


CARPENTRY  93 

With  a  balloon  frame  this  can  not  be  done,  because  there  are 
no  girts  in  the  outside  wall,  but  only  ledger  boards  which  are  so  fas- 
tened that  they  can  not  shrink,  while  in  the  interior  walls  we  have 
still  the  partition  caps.  All  that  can  be  done  in  this  case,  is  to  make 
the  depth  of  the  sills  and  interior  girders  as  nearly  equal  as  possible, 
and  to  make  the  partition  caps  as  shallow  as  will  be  consistent  with 
safety. 

FLOORS 

After  the  wall,  the  next  important  part  of  the  house  frame  to 
be  considered  is  the  floors,  which  are  usually  framed  while  the  wall 
is  being  put  up  and  before  it  is  finished.  They  must  be  made  not 
only  strong  enough  to  carry  any  load  which  may  come  upon  them, 
but  also  stiff  enough  so  that  they  will  not  vibrate  when  a  person  walks 
across  the  floor,  as  is  the  case  in  some  cheaply-built  houses.  The 
floors  are  formed  of  girders  and  beams,  or  "joists,"  the  girders  being 
large,  heavy  timbers  which  support  the  lighter  joists  when  it  is  impos- 
sible to  allow  these  to  span  the  whole  distance  between  the  outside 
walls. 

Girders.  Girders  are  generally  needed  only  in  the  first  floor, 
since  in  all  the  other  floors  the  inner  ends  of  the  joists  may  be  sup- 
ported by  the  partitions  of  the  floor  below.  They  are  usually  of 
wood,  though  it  may  sometimes  be  found  economical  to  use  steel 
beams  in  large  buildings,  and  even  in  small  buildings  the  use  of  steel 
for  this  purpose  is  increasing  rapidly.  Wrought  iron  was  once  used, 
but  steel  is  now  cheaper  and  has  taken  its  place.  However,  when 
this  is  not  found  to  be  expedient,  hard  pine  or  spruce  girders 
will  answer  very  well.  The  connections  used  in  the  case  of  steel 
girders  will  be  explained  later.  The  girders  may  be  of  spruce  or  even 
of  hemlock,  but  it  is  hard  to  get  the  hemlock  in  such  large  sizes  as 
would  be  required,  and  spruce,  too,  is  hardly  strong  enough  for  the 
purpose.  Southern  pine,  therefore,  is  usually  employed  for  girders 
in  the  best  work. 

The  size  of  tne  girder  depends  on  the  span,  that  is,  the  distance 
between  the  supporting  walls,  and  upon  the  loads  which  the  floor 
is  expected  to  carry.  In  general,  the  size  of  a  beam  or  girder  varies 
directly  as  the  square  of  the  length  of  the  span,  so  that  if  we  have 
two  spans,  one  of  which  is  twice  as  great  as  the  other,  the  girder  for 


105 


94 


CARPENTRY 


the  longer  span  should  be  four  times  as  strong  as  the  girder  for  the 
smaller  span.     In  ordinary  houses,  however,  all  the  girders  are  made 

about  8X12  inches  in  sections,  although 
sometirhes  an  8  X  8-inch  timber  would  suf- 
fice, and  sometimes  perhaps  a  12-inch 
piece  would  be  required. 

It  should  be  remembered  in  deciding 
upon  the  size  of  this  piece,  that  any  girder 
is  increased  in  strength  in  direct  propor- 
tion to  the  width  of  the  timber  (that  is,  a 
girder  12  inches  wide  is  twice  as  strong  as 
one  6  inches  wide),  but  in  direct  proportion 
also  to  the  square  of  the  depth  (that  is,  a 
girder  12  inches  deep  is  four  times  as  strong 
as  one  6  inches  deep) .  Hence,  the  most  economical  girder  is  one  which 
is  deeper  than  it  is  wide,  such  as  an  8X  12-inch  stick;  and  the  width 
may  be  decreased  by  any  amount  so  long  as  it  is  wide  enough  to  pro- 
vide sufficient  stiffness,  and  the  depth  is  sufficient  to  enable  the  piece 
to  carry  the  load  placed  upon  it.     If  the  piece  is  made  too  narrow  in 


Fig.  132.  Buckled  Girder  Show- 
ing Too  Light  Construction 


V 


Fig.  133.     Double  Stirrup  Joist  Supporter 


Fig.  134.  Single  Joist  Hanger 


proportion  to  its  depth,  however,  it  is  likely  to  fail  by  "buckling," 
that  is,  it  will  bend  as  shown  in  Fig.  132.  It  has  been  found  by 
experience  that  for  safety  the  width  should  be  at  least  equal  to  i  of 
the  depth. 

There  are  at  least  three  ways  in  which  the  joists  may  be  sup- 
ported by  a  girder.     The  best,  but  most  expensive,  method   is  to 


106 


FIRST  AND  SECOND  STORY  PLANS  OF  HOUSE  FOR 
MR,  C.  M.  THOMPSON,  CAMBRIDGE,  MASS. 

Cram,  Goodhue  &  Ferguson,  Architects,  Boston  and  New  York. 


CARPENTRY 


95 


support  the  ends  of  the  joists  in  patent  hangers  or  stirrup  irons  which 
connect  with  the  girder.  This  method  is  the  same  as  was  described 
for  the  sill,  except  that  with  the  girder  a  double  stirrup  iron,  such  as 
that  shown  in  Fig.  133,  may  be  used.  These  stirrup  iron  hangers 
are  made  of  wrought  iron,  2| 
or  3  inches  wide,  and  about  f 
inch  thick,  bent  into  the  required 
shape.  They  usually  fail  by  the 
crushing  of  the  wood  of  the  gir- 
ders, especially  when  a  single 
hanger,  like  that  shown  in  Fig. 
134,  is  used.  Fig.  135  shows  a 
double  stirrup  iron  hanger  in 
use.  Patent  hangers  as  shown 
in  Fig.  136  are  the  most  suit- 
able. 

If  hangers  of  any  kind  are  used,  there  will  be  no  cutting  of  the 
girder  except  at  the  ends,  where  it  frames  into  the  sill,  and  even  there 
a  hanger  may  be  used.  The  girder  may  be  placed  so  that  the  joists 
will  be  flush  with  it  on  top,  or  so  that  it  is  flush  with  the  sill  on  top. 


Fig.  135.     Double  Hanger  with  Joists  in  Place 


Fig.  136.    Patent  Hanger  with  Joists  in  Place 


Fig.  137.    Joists  Framed  into  Sill 


If  the  joists  are  flush  with  the  girder  on  top,  and  are  framed  into  the 
sill  in  the  ordinary  way,  as  shown  in  Fig.  137,  the  girder  can  not  be 
flush  on  top  with  the  sill;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  if  the  girder  is 
flush  with  the  sill  on  top,  it  can  not  at  the  same  time  be  flush  with 
the  joists  on  top.     If  joist  hangers  are  used  on  the  girder  to  support 


107 


96 


CARPENTRY 


the  joists,  they  will  probably  be  used  on  the  sill  as  well,  as  explained 
in  connection  with  the  sill;  and  in  this  case  the  girder  can  be  made 
flush  with  the  sill  on  top  and  the  joists  hung  from  both  girder  and 
sill  with  hangers,  thus  bringing  both  ends  of  a  joist  to  the  same  level. 


Fig.  138.      Method  of  Bringing  Joist  Level  When  Resting  on  Sill 

as  shown  in  Fig.  138.  If  the  girder  were  framed  into  the  sill  at  all,  it 
would  almost  always  be  made  flush  with  the  sill  on  top,  and  by  the 
proper  adjustment  of  the  hangers  the  joists  would  be  arranged  so  as 
to  be  level. 

For  framing  the  girder  into  the  sill,  a  tenon-and-tusk  joint,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  139,  would  be  used  if  the  girder  is  to  be  flush  with  the 
sill  on  top.  Since  the  girder  would  in  most  cases  be  deeper  than  the 
sill,  the  latter  having  a  depth  of  only  6  inches  the  wall  would  neces- 
sarily have  to  be  cut  away  in  order  to  make  a  place  for  the  girder. 

This  condition  is  clearly  shown 
in  Fig.  140.  The  girder  itself 
should  not  be  cut  over  the  wall, 
as  shown  in  Fig.  141,  because 
this  greatly  weakens  the  girder. 
If  this  method  is  used,  the  joists 
should  be  framed  into  the  girder 
in  the  same  way  as  they  are 
framed  into  the  sill,  a  mortise 
being  cut  in  the  girder,  and  a 
tenon  on  the  joist.  This  is  called 
"gaining"  and  is  shown  in  Fig. 
137.  The  top  of  the  girder  thus  comes  several  inches  below  the  top 
of  the  floor. 

Another  method  is  to  make  the  top  of  the  girder  flush  with  the 
top  of  the  joists.     The  joists  are  then  framed  into  the  girder  with  a 


Fig.   139.     Tenon-and-Tusk  Joint  between 
Sill  and  Girder 


108 


CARPENTRY 


97 


Fig.  140. 


Wall  Cut  Away  to  Allow  Girder  and 
Sill  to  Join  at  Same  Level 


tenon-and-tusk  joint,  as  shown  in  Fig.  139,  and  the  girder  is  "gained" 
into  the  sill,  as  shown  in  Fig.  137. 

Still  another  method  in 
common  use  is  simply  to 
"size  down"  the  joists  on  the 
girder  about  1  inch,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  142.  In  this  case,  of 
course,  the  girder  is  much 
lower  than  the  sill,  usually 
so  low  that  it  can  not  be 
framed  into  the  sill  at  all, 
but  must  be  supported  by 
the  walls  independently. 
Holes  are  left  in  the  wall 
where  the  girders  come,  the 
latter  being  run  into  the 
holes,  and  their  ends  resting 
directly  on  the  wall,  inde- 
pendent of  the  sill.  This  is  not  very  good  construction,  however, 
because  the  floor  is  not  tied  together  as  it  is  when  the  girder 
frames  into  the  sill.  The  first 
method  is  the  best  and  is  the 
one  in  most  common  use. 

The  girders  serve  to  sup- 
port the  partitions  as  well  as 
to  support  the  floors,  and 
should,  therefore,  be  designed 
to  come  under  the  partitions 
whenever  this  is  possible. 
When  the  distance  between 
the  outside  walls  is  too  great 
to  be  spanned  by  the  girder, 
it  is  supported  on  brick  piers 
or  posts  of  hard  wood  or  cast 
iron  in  the  cellar.  Such  piers 
or  posts  should  always  be 
placed  wherever  girders  running  in  different  directions  intersect. 
Girders  are  also  often  supported  on  brick  cellar  partitions. 


Fig.  1-11.     Cutting  Girder  Bad  Practice  on 
Account  of  Weakening  Effect 


109 


98 


CARPENTRY 


Joists.  Joists  are  the  light  pieces  which  make  up  the  body  of 
the  floor  frame  and  to  which  the  flooring  is  nailed.  They  are  almost 
always  made  of  spruce,  although  other  woods  may  be  used,  and  may 
be  found  more  economical  in  some  localities.  They  are  usually  2  or 
3  inches  thick,  but  the  depth  is  varied  to  suit  the  conditions.  Joists 
as  small  as  2X6  inches  are  sometimes  used  in  very  light  buildings, 
but  these  are  too  small  for  any  floor.  They  may  sometimes  be  used 
for  a  ceiling  where  there  are  no  rooms  above,  and,  therefore,  no 
weight  on  the  floor.  A  very  common  size  for  joists  is  2X8  inches, 
and  these  are  probably  large  enough  for  any  ordinary  construction, 
but  joists  2X10  inches  make  a  stiff er  floor,  and  are  used  in  all  the 

best  work.  Occasionally  joists 
as  large  as  2X12  inches  are 
used,  especially  in  large  city 
houses,  and  they  make  a  very 
stiff  floor,  but  this  size  is  un- 
usual. If  a  joist  deeper  than 
12  inches  is  used,  the  thickness 
should  be  increased  to  2|  or  3 
inches,  in  order  to  prevent  it 
from  failing  by  buckling,  as  ex- 
Fig.  142.    "Sizing  Up"  Joist  on  Girders        plained  for  girdcrs,  P.  95.     The 

size  of  the  joists  depends  in  general  upon  the  span  and  the  spacing. 

The  usual  spacing  is  16  or  20  inches  between  centers,  and  16 
inches  makes  a  better  spacing  than  20  inches,  because  the  joists  can 
then  be  placed  close  against  the  studding  in  the  outside  walls  and 
spiked  to  this  studding.  It  is  generally  better  to  use  light  joists 
spaced  16  inches  on  centers  than  to  use  heavier  ones  spaced  20 
inches  on  centers.  The  spacing  is  seldom  less  than  16  inches  and 
should  never  be  more  than  20  inches. 

Supports  and  Partitions.  In  certain  parts  of  the  floor  frame  it 
may  be  necessary  to  double  the  joists  or  place  two  of  them  close 
together  in  order  to  support  some  very  heavy  concentrated  load. 
This  is  the  case  whenever  a  partition  runs  parallel  with  the  floor 
joists,  unless  there  is  another  partition  under  it.  Such  partitions 
may  be  supported  in  several  different  ways.  A  very  heavy  joist,  or 
two  joists  spiked  together,  may  be  placed  under  the  partition,  as 
shown  at  A  in  Fig.  143,  C  being  the  sole,  B  the  under  or  rough 


110 


CARPENTRY 


99 


Fig.  143.  Objectionable  Construction   for   Parti- 
tion Support 


flooring,  and  DDB  the  studding.  This  method  is  objectionable  for 
two  reasons :  It  is  often  found 
convenient  to  run  pipes  up 
in  the  partition,  and  if  the 
single  joist  is  placed  directly 
under  the  partition,  this  can 
not  be  done  except  by  cutting 
the  joist  and  thus  weakening 
it.  Moreover,  if  the  single 
joist  is  used,  there  is  no 
solid  nailing  for  the  finished 
upper  flooring,  unless  the  joist 
is  large  enough  to  project 
beyond  the  partition  stud- 
ding on  each  side.  The  joist 
is  seldom,  if  ever,  large  enough  for  this,  and  the  finished  flooring 
must,  therefore,  be  nailed  only  to  the  under  flooring  at  the  end  where 
it  butts  against  the  partition,  so  that  a  weak,  insecure  piece  of  work 
is  the  result.    This  may  be  seen  by  referring  to  the  figure. 

A  much  better  way  is  to  use  two  joists  far  enough  apart  to 
project  a  little  on  each  side  of  the  partition,  as  shown  at  A  A  in 
Fig.  144,  and  thus  afford  a  nail- 
ing for  the  finished  flooring. 
These  joists  must  be  large  enough 
to  support  the  weight  of  the 
partition  without  sagging  any 
more  than  do  the  other  joists  of 
the  floor,  and,  therefore,  joists  3 
or  even  4  inches  thick  should 
be  used.  They  should  be  placed 
about  6  or  7  inches  apart  on  cen- 
ters, and  plank  bridging  should 
be  cut  in  between  them  at  inter- 
vals of  from  14  to  20  inches,  as  shown  at  E  in  Fig.  144,  in  order  to 
stiffen  them  and  make  them  act  together.  This  plank  bridging 
should  be  made  of  pieces  of  joist  2  inches  thick  and  of  the  same 
depth  as  the  floor  joists,  and  should  be  so  placed  that  the  grain 
will  in  every  case  be  horizontal. 


Fig.  144. 


Approved  Construction  for  Par- 
tition Support 


111 


100 


CARPENTRY 


A  partition,  supported  as  described  above,  is  bound  to  settle 
somewhat  as  the  10  or  more  inches  of  joist  beneath  it  shrinks  in 

seasoning,  and  the  settlement 
may  cause  cracks  in  the  plaster- 
ing at  the  corner  between  the 
partition  and  an  outside  wall. 
In  order  to  prevent  this  settle- 
ment, partitions  running  par- 
allel with  the  floor  joists  are 
often  supported  on  strips  which 
are  secured  to  the  under  side  of 
the  floor  joists,  as  shown  at  A 
in  Fig.  145.  These  strips  can 
not  be  allowed  to  project  into  the 
room  below,  and  so  they  must  be 
made  as  thin  as  is  consistent  with  safety.  Strips  of  iron  plate  about 
I  inch  thick  and  wide  enough  to  support  the  partition  studs  are,  there- 
fore, used  for  this  purpose,  and  are  fastened  to  the  joists  by  means  of 


Fig.  145.     Partition  Supported  by  Strips 
Secured  to  Under  Side  of  Joist 


Fig,  146.     Header  and  Trimmer  Construction 


bolts  or  lag  screws.  Partitions  which  run  at  right  angles  to  the 
floor  joists  can  also  be  supported  in  this  way.  If  a  partition  runs 
at  right  angles  to  the  joists  near  the  center  of  their  span,  the  tendency 


118 


CARPENTRY 


101 


for  the  joists  to  sag  under  it  will  be  very  great,  and  they  must  be 
strengthened  either  by  using  larger  joists,  or  by  placing  them  closer 
together.  If  the  span  of  the  floor  joists  is  large  and  the  partition  is 
a  heavy  one,  it  may  be  necessary  to  put  in  a  girder  running  at  right 
angles  to  the  joists  to  carry  the  partition.  In  this  case  the  partition 
stud  will  set  directly  on  the  girder,  which  may  be  a  large  timber,  or 
in  some  cases,  a  steel  I-beam. 

Headers  and  Trimmers.  Another  case  where  a  girder  may  be 
necessary  in  a  floor  above  the  first,  is  where  an  opening  is  to  be  left 
in  the  floor  for  a  chimney  or  for  a  stair  well.  The  timbers  on  each 
side  of  such  an  opening  are  called  "trimmers,"  and  must  be  made 
heavier  than  the  ordinary  joists;  while  a  piece  called  a  "header" 
must  be  framed  in  between  them  to  receive  the  ends  of  the  joists,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  146.  The  trimmers  may  be  made  by  simply  doubling 
up  the  floor  joists  on  each  side 
of  the  opening,  or,  if  necessary, 
I-beams  or  heavy  wood  girders 
may  be  used.  In  most  cases 
these  trimmers  may  be  built  up 
by  spiking  together  two  or  three 
joists,  and  the  header  may  be 
made  in  the  same  way. 

Joist  Connection.  With  Sill. 
Joists  are  also  "gained"  into  the 
sill,  as  shown  in  Fig.  94,  in  which 
case  a  mortise  is  cut  in  the  sill 

and  a  corresponding  tenon  is  cut  in  the  end  of  the  joist.  The  mortise 
was  illustrated  and  described  in  connection  with  the  sill,  while  the  end 
of  the  joist  is  cut  as  shown  in  Fig.  94,  the  tenon  being  about  4  inches 
deep  and  gained  into  the  sill  about  2  inches.  This  brings  the  bottom 
of  the  joist  flush  with  the  bottom  of  the  sill,  and  the  top  of  the  joist 
somewhat  above  the  top  of  the  sill,  according  to  the  depth  of  the 
joist.  The  top  of  a  10-inch  joist  would  come  4  inches  above  the  top 
of  a  6-inch  sill,  and  the  joist  would  rest  partly  on  the  masonry  wall, 
thus  relieving  the  connection  of  a  part  of  the  stress  due  to  the  weight 
of  the  loaded  joist.  A  common  but  very  bad  method  of  framing  the 
joist  to  the  sill  is  simply  to  "cut  it  over"  the  sill  without  mortising 
the  latter,  as  shown  in  Fig.  147.    This  does  not  make  a  strong  con- 


Fig.  147.     Bad  Method  of   Framing  Joist 
to  Sill 


lis 


102 


CARPENTRY 


Fig.  148.    Crack  in  Joist  Due  to 
Bad  Construction 


nection  even  when  the  joist  rests  partly  on  the  masonry  wall;  and 
if  it  is  not  so  supported  it  is  almost  sure  to  fail  by  splitting,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  148,  under  a  very  small  loading.    In  fact,  it  would  be  much 

stronger  if  the  joists  were  turned  upside 

down.    Frequently  the  joist   is   cut   as 

shown  in  Fig.  149,  where   the  tenon  is 

sunk  into  a  mortise  cut  in  the  sill,  thus 

bringing  the  top  of  the  joists  flush  with 

the  top  of  the  sill;   but  in  this  case  the 

bottom  of  the  joists  will  almost  invari- 

bly  drop  below  the  bottom  of  the  sill  and  the  wall  must  be  cut 

away  to  make  room  for  it,  as  shown  in  Fig.  140.    It  is  also  weak  in 

the  same  way  as  is  the  connection  shown  in  Fig.  148. 

With  Girders.  The  framing  of  the  joists  into  the  girders  may 
be  accomplished  in  several  ways,  according  to  the  position  of  the 
girder.  The  placing  of  the  girder  is  quite  an  important  point.  The 
top  of  the  floor,  on  which  rest  the  sole-pieces  of  the  cross-partitions, 
must  remain  always  true  and  level,  that  is,  the  outside  ends  of  the 
joists  must  be  at  the  same  level  as  the  inside  ends.  Otherwise  the 
doors  in  the  cross-partitions  will  not  fit  their  frames,  and  can  not 
be  opened  or  shut  and  the  plastering  is  almost  sure  to  crack. 

Both  ends  of  the  joists  will  sink  somewhat,  on  account  of  the 
shrinkage  of  the  timber  in  seasoning,  and  the  only  way  to  make  sure 

that  the  shrinkage  at  the  two 
ends  will  be  the  same  is  to  see 
that  there  is  the  same  amount 
of  horizontal  timber  at  each  end 
between  the  top  of  the  floor  and 
the  solid  masonry.  This  is  be- 
cause timber  shrinks  very  much 
across  the  grain,  but  almost  not  at 
all  along  the  grain.  If  the  joists 
are  framed  properly  into  the  sill, 
so  that  they  are  flush  on  the  bottom  with  the  sill,  we  have  at  the  outer 
end  of  the  joist  a  depth  of  horizontal  timber  equal  to  the  depth  of  the 
joist  itself,  as  shown  in  Fig.  138;  and  in  order  to  have  the  same  depth 
of  timber  at  the  inside,  the  bottom  of  the  joist  must  be  flush  with 
the  bottom  of  the  girder,  which  usually  rests  on  brick  piers.     Of 


Fig.  149. 


Another  Bad  Joist  and  Sill 
Construction 


114 


CARPENTRY 


103 


course  the  top  of  the  girder  must  not  in  any  case  come  above  the 
top  of  the  floor  joists;  therefore,  in  general,  the  girder  must  be  equal 
in  depth  to  the  floor  joists  and  flush  with  these  joists  on  top  and 


Fig.  150.     Superior  Floor  Joist  and  Sill  Construction 

bottom,  as  shown  in  Fig.  150.  This  method  is  not  always  followed, 
however,  in  spite  of  its  evident  superiority;  and  the  girder  is  often 
sunk  several  inches  below  the  tops  of  the  floor  joists,  as  shown  in 


Fig.  151.     Joist  Sized  Down  on  Girder 


Fig.  138,  or  even  in  some  cases  very  much  below,  as  shown  in  Fig. 
151.  Both  of  these  methods  cause  an  unsightly  projection  below 
the  ceiling  of  the  cellar.    Where  the  joists  are  brought  flush  with 


Fig.  152.    Fastening  Joists  by  Iron  Strap 


Fig.  153.    Fastening  Joists  by  Dog 


the  girder  top  and  bottom,  they  may  be  framed  into  it  with  a  tenon- 
and-tusk  joint,  as  are  the  girders,  as  shown  in  Fig.  139,  and  a  hole 
bored  through  the  tenon  to  receive  a  pin  to  hold  the  joist  in  place. 


115 


104 


CARPENTRY 


Other  methods  of  frammg  tenon-and-tusk  joints  are  shown  in 
Figs.  47,  48,  49,  and  also  a  double-tenon  joint  in  Fig.  50,  which  might 
be  used  in  this  case,  although  it  is  much  inferior  to  the  tenon-and- 
tusk  joint.  Two  joists  framing  into  a  girder  from  opposite  sides 
should  be  fastened  strongly  together  on  top  either  by  an  iron  strap 
passing  over  the  top  of  the  girder  and  secured  to  each  joist,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  152,  or  by  means  of  a"dog"  of  round  bar  iron,  which  is  bent 
at  the  ends  and  sharpened  so  that  it  may  be  driven  down  into  the 
abutting  ends  of  the  joists,  as  shown  in  Fig.  153.  These  bars  should 
be  used  at  every  fifth  or  sixth  joist,  to  form  a  series  of  continuous 
lines  across  the  building  from  sill  to  sill. 

If  the  girder  is  sunk  a  little  below  the  tops  of  the  joists  these  may 
be  gained  into  it  in  the  same  way  as  they  are  gained  into  the  sill. 


Fig.  154.    Joist  Gained  into  Girder 


Fig.  155.    Joist  Fastened  to  Girder  by 
Tenon  Joint  and  Dowel 


In  this  case  joists  should  be  arranged  as  shown  in  Fig.  154,  so  that 
they  will  not  conflict  with  one  another;  and  the  two  adjacent  joists 
may  be  spiked  together,  thus  giving  additional  stiffness  to  the  floor. 
If  the  tenon-and-tusk  connection  is  used,  the  joists  may  be  arranged 
exactly  opposite  each  other,  provided  that  the  girder  is  sufficiently 
wide,  but  it  is  always  much  better  to  arrange  them  as  shown  in  Fig. 
155,  even  in  this  case.  The  tenon  may  then  be  carried  clear  through 
the  girder  and  fastened  by  a  dowel  as  shown.  Very  rarely  a  simple 
double-tenon  joint,  such  as  that  shown  in  Fig.  50,  might  be  used,  but 
it  is  much  inferior  to  either  the  gaining  or  the  tenon-and-tusk  joint. 
If  the  girder  is  sunk  very  much  below  the  tops  of  the  joists,  as 
in  Fig.  151,  these  will  usually  rest  on  top  of  it  and  be  fastened  by 


116 


CARPENTRY 


105 


spikes  only,  or  will  be  "sized  down"  upon  it  about  1  inch,  as  shown. 
There  is  no  mortising  of  the  girder  in  either  case.  Joists  are  also 
thus  sized  down  upon  the  girts  and  partition  caps,  and  are  notched 
over  the  ledger  boards  as  shown  in  Fig.  105.     In  cutting  the  joists 


Fig.  156.    Joist  Supported  by 
Brick  Wall 


Fig.  157.    Anchored  Joist 


for  sizing  and  notching,  the  measurements  should  be  taken  in  every 
case  from  the  top  of  the  joists,  since  they  may  not  be  all  of  exactly 
the  same  depth,  and  the  tops  must  be  all  on  a  level  after  they  are 
in  place.  This  is  really  the  only  reason  why  the  joists  should  be 
sized  down  at  all,  because  otherwise  they  might  simply  rest  upon 
the  top  of  the  girder,  or  girt,  and  be  fastened  by  nailing. 

With  Brick  Wall.  When  a  joist  or  girder  is  supported  at  either 
end  on  a  brick  wall,  there  will  either  be  a  hole  left  in  the  wall  to 
receive  it,  or  the  wall  will  be 
corbeled  out  to  form  a  seat 
for  the  beam.  If  the  beam 
enters  the  wall  the  end  should 
be  cut  as  shown  in  Fig.  156, 
so  that  in  case  of  the  failure 
of  the  beam  from  overload- 
ing or  from  fire,  it  may  fall 
out  without  injuring  the 
wall.  Every  fifth  or  sixth 
joist  is  held  in  place  by  an  anchor,  as  shown  in  Fig.  157,  of  which 
there  are  several  kinds  on  the  market.  Fig.  158  shows  the  result 
when  a  beam  which  is  cut  off  square  on  the  end,  falls  out  of 
the  wall. 


Fig.  158.    Effect  of  Releasing  Diagonal-  and 
Square-Ended  Joists 


117 


106  .  CARPENTRY 

There  must  always  be  left  around  the  end  of  a  beam  which 
is  in  the  wall,  a  sufficient  space  to  allow  for  proper  ventilation  to 
prevent  dry  rot,  and  the  end  should  always  be  well  painted  to  keep 
out  the  moisture.  Patent  wall-hangers  and  box  anchors  are  often 
used  to  support  the  ends  of  joists  in  brick  buildings,  but  only  in  case 
of  heavy  floors. 

The  floor  framing  in  a  brick  building  is  the  same  as  that  in  a 
building  of  wood  except  that  there  is  no  girt  to  receive  the  ends  of 
the  floor  boards,  so  that  a  joist  must  be  placed  close  against  the 
inside  of  the  wall  all  around  the  building  to  give  a  firm  nailing  for 
the  flooring. 

Crowning.  In  any  floor,  whether  in  a  wood  or  brick  building, 
if  the  span  of  the  floor  joists  is  very  considerable  so  that  there  is 
any  chance  for  deflection  they  must  be  "crowned"  in  order  to  offset 
the  effect  of  such  deflection.  The  operation  called  "crowning"  con- 
sists in  shaping  the  top  of  each  joist  to  a  slight  curve,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  159 A,  so  that  it  is  1  inch  or  so  higher  in  the  middle  than  it  is  at 


Fig.  159.     Crowning  Joist 

the  ends.  As  the  joist  sags  or  deflects,  the  top  becomes  level  while 
the  convexity  will  show  itself  in  the  bottom,  as  shown  in  Fig.  159B. 
Joists  need  not  be  crowned  unless  the  span  is  quite  large  and  the 
loads  heavy  enough  to  cause  a  deflection  of  an  inch  or  more  at  the 
center  of  the  joist. 

Bridging.  Floor  frames  are  "bridged"  in  much  the  same  way 
as  was  described  for  the  walls,  and  for  much  the  same  purpose, 
namely,  to  stiffen  the  floor  frame,  to  prevent  unequal  deflection  of 
the  joists  and  to  enable  an  overloaded  joist  to  get  some  assistance 
from  the  pieces  on  either  side  of  it.  Bridging  is  of  two  kinds,  "plank 
bridging"  and  "cross  bridging,"  of  which  the  first  has  already  been 
shown  in  connection  with  the  partition  supports.  Plank  bridging 
is  not  very  effective  for  stiffening  the  floor,  and  cross  bridging  is 
always  preferred.  This  bridging  is  somewhat  like  the  diagonal 
bridging  used  in  the  walls,  and  consists  of  pieces  of  scantling,  usually 
1X3  inches  or  2X3  inches  in  size,  cut  in  diagonally  between  the 


118 


CARPENTRY 


107 


Fig.    160.      Cross   Bridging  between  Joists 


floor  joists.    Each  piece  is  nailed  to  the  top  of  one  joist  and  to  the 
bottom  of  the  next;  and  two  pieces  which  cross  each  other  are  set 
close  together  between  the  same  two  joists,  forming  a  sort  of  St. 
Andrew's  cross,  whence  we 
get  the  name  "cross  bridg- 
ing"      or      "herringbone 
bridging"   as    it  is  some- 
times called.    The  arrange- 
ment is  shown  in  Fig.  160, 
and  the    bridging   should 
be  placed  in  straight  lines 
at    intervals    of   8   or  10 
feet     across     the     whole 
length  of  the  floor.     Each 

piece  should  be  well  nailed  with  two  eightpenny  or  tenpenny  nails 
in  each  end.  If  this  is  well  done  there  will  be  formed  a  continuous 
truss  across  the  whole  length  of  the  floor  which  will  prevent  any 
overloaded  joist  from  sagging  below  the  others,  and  which  will 
greatly  stiffen  the  whole  floor  so  as  to  prevent  any  vibration.  The 
bridging,  however,  adds  nothing  to  the  strength  of  the  floor. 

Porch  Floors.  A  word  might  be  appropriately  inserted  at  this 
point  in  regard  to  floors  of  piazzas  and  porches.  These  may  be 
supported  either  on  brick  piers 
or  on  wood  posts,  but  prefer- 
ably on  piers,  as  these  are 
much  more  durable  than  posts. 
If  piers  are  used,  a  sill,  usually 
4X6  inches  in  size,  should  be 
laid  on  the  piers  all  around,  and 
light  girders  should  be  inserted 
between  the  piers  and  the  wall 
of  the  house,  in  order  to  divide 
the  floor  area  into  two  or  three 
panels.  The  joists  may  then  be 
framed  parallel  to  the  walls  of 

the  house,  and  the  floor  boards  laid  at  right  angles  to  these  walls. 
The  whole  frame  should  be  so  constructed  that  it  will  pitch  outward, 
away  from  the  house  at  the  rate  of  1  inch  in  5  or  6  feet,  thus  bringing 


\                                 .^r-'*-«rj3y     /?                    '-J^i.^^r    ^ 

\  // 

\v- 

l//\\ 

V     w 

c 

> 

I 

\                   ■        1 

Fig.  161. 


Construction  of  Unsupported 
Corner 


119 


108  CARPENTRY 

the  outside  edge  lower  than  the  inside  edge  and  giving  an  opportunity 
for  the  water  to  drain  off. 

Stairs.  The  stairs  are  built  on  frames  called  "stringers"  or 
"carriages,"  which  may  be  considered  as  a  part  of  the  floor  framing. 
They  consist  of  pieces  of  plank  2  to  3  inches  thick  and  12  or  more 
inches  wide,  which  are  cut  to  form  the  steps  of  the  stairs  and  which 
are  then  set  up  in  place.  There  are  usually  three  of  these  stringers 
under  each  flight  of  stairs,  one  at  each  side  and  a  third  in  the  center, 
and  they  are  fastened  at  the  bottom  to  the  floor  and  at  the  top  to 
the  joists  which  form  the  stair  well.  This  subject  is  taken  up  more 
fully  under   "Stair  Building." 

Unsupported  Corners.  An  interesting  place  in  a  floor  framing 
plan  is  where  we  have  a  corner  without  any  support  beneath  it,  as 
at  the  corner  A  in  Fig.  161.  This  corner  must  be  supported  from  the 
three  points  B,  C,  and  D,  and  the  figure  shows  how  this  is  accom- 
plished. A  piece  of  timber  E  is  placed  across  from  B  to  C,  and 
another  piece  starts  from  D  and  rests  on  the  piece  B  C,  projecting 
beyond  it  to  the  corner  A.  This  furnishes  a  sufficiently  strong  sup- 
port for  the  corner. 


120 


CARPENTRY 

PART  III 


THE  ROOF 


The  framing  of  the  roof  is  one  of  the  most  difficult  problems 
with  which  the  carpenter  has  to  deal,  not  because  of  the  number  of 
complicated  details,  for  these  are  few,  but  because  of  the  many 
different  bevels  which  must  be  cut  in  order  to  allow  the  rafters  to 
frame  into  one  another  properly. 

There  are  many  kinds  of  roofs,  and  before  describing  the  different 
varieties  it  will  be  well  to  consider  briefly  the  purpose  of  the  roof 
and  its  development  from  simple  forms  to  those  which  are  more 
elaborate  and  perhaps  more  ornamental.  The  primary  object  of  a 
roof  in  a  temperate  climate  is,  of  course,  to  keep  out  the  rain  from 
the  interior  of  the  building  and  at  the  same  time  to  keep  out  the 
cold.  The  roof  must,  therefore,  be  so  constructed  as  to  free  itself 
from  the  falling  water  as  soon  as  possible,  that  is,  it  must  be  built 
to  shed  water  and,  therefore,  it  must  be  sloped  or  inclined  to  the 
horizontal  in  some  way.  If  it  is  necessary  for  the  sake  of  economy 
or  for  any  other  reason  to  construct  the  roof  practically  flat,  it 
must  be  made  more  secure  against  the  passage  of  water  than  if  it 
is  made  sloping,  and  some  provision  must  be  made  to  carry  off  the 
water,  and  to  cause  it  to  collect  in  one  or  two  low  places  in  the  roof 
surface,  from  which  pipes  or  down  spouts  may  be  provided  to  take 
it  away  to  a  safe  place  outside  the  building.  The  roof  covering 
must  be  of  some  material  through  which  water  will  not  readily 
penetrate,  such  as  tin,  galvanized  iron,  lead,  or  zinc  or  copper  among 
the  metals,  or  a  composition  of  tar  and  gravel,  if  metal  is  not 
suitable  to  the  purpose.  This  would  be  for  a  roof  which  is  nearly 
flat;  for  a  roof  which  slopes,  and  will  shed  the  water,  thus  getting 
rid  of  it  more  quickly,  a  covering  of  slates,  tile,  or  wood  shingles 

Copyright,  1912,  by  American  School  of  Correspondence. 


121 


no 


CARPENTRY 


may  be  employed,  as  well  as  tin,  copper,  or  other  metals.  The  slates 
or  shingles  would  have  to  be  laid  in  several  thicknesses,  the  number 
depending  upon  the  steepness  of  the  slope  of  the  roof,  and  in  order 
to  accomplish  this  they  would  have  to  be  laid  overlapping  each 
other.  In  order  that  the  water  escaping  from  the  roofs  may  not 
run  down  the  sides  of  the  building,  making  unsightly  streaks  and 
wetting  the  windows  and  doors,  it  is  necessary  that  the  roofs  should 
project  somewhat  beyond  the  face  of  the  walls  all  around.  The 
projecting  part  of  the  roof  is  called  the  eaves. 

ROOF  CHARACTERISTICS 

Styles  of  Roofs.  The  different  varieties  of  roofs,  from  the 
simple  pitch  roof  to  the  most  complicated  combination  of  hips  and 
valleys,  are  developments  of  a  few  simple  forms. 

Lean-To  Roof.  The  lean-to  roof  is  the  most  simple  of  them  all, 
and  is  usually  employed  for  small  sheds,  piazzas,  porches,  ells,  and 


Fig.  162.     Lean-To  Roof 

in  many  other  situations  where  appearance  is  not  a  matter  of  great 
moment,  and  where  the  essential  thing  is  to  obtain  the  shelter  as 
cheaply  and  as  easily  as  possible.  The  lean-to  roof  is  shown  in 
Fig.  162.  It  consists  of  a  plain  surface,  one  end  or  one  side  of  which 
is  raised  to  a  higher  level  than  the  other  side  or  end,  and  supported 
in  this  position  by  means  of  walls  or  by  means  of  posts  at  the  four 
corners.  The  position  in  which  the  surface  is  supported  enables  the 
rain  water  to  drain  freely  from  it,  and  thus  it  fulfills  the  require- 
ments of  a  roof  so  long  as  it  remains  water-tight. 


122 


E3  -a 
°   9. 


CARPENTRY 


111 


Pitch  or  Gable  Roof.  Next  to  the  simple  lean-to  roof  with  a 
single  sloping  surface  comes  the  ordinary  pitch  or  gable  roof,  which 
has  two  sloping  surfaces  one  on  each  side  of  the  center  line  of  the 
building,  coming  together  at  the  ridge  in  the  middle.    This  form  of 


Fig.  163.     Pitch  or  Gable  Roof 

roof,  which  is  shown  in  Fig.  163,  is  very  common  and  is  also  quite 
simple  in  design,  and  economical  in  construction,  so  that  it  has  been 
very  popular  indeed  for  all  classes  of  buildings  except  very  large 
structures  and  city  buildings.  The  slope  of  the  roof,  that  is,  its 
"pitch"  or  its  inclination  to  the  horizontal,  may  be  varied  to  an 
infinite  extent,  from  a  very  flat  slope  to  a  very  steep  one,  and  these 


Fig.  164.     Gambrel  Roof 


variations  have  been  made  in  different  countries  and  in  different 
climates  to  suit  either  the  taste  of  the  designers  or  the  practical 
requirements  of  the  climate.  The  roof  may  be  used  in  combination 
with  roofs  of  other  kinds  and,  indeed,  it  is  usually  used  in  this  way, 


123 


112 


CARPENTRY 


so  much  so  that,  although  the  simple  gable  roof  Is  the  base  of  almost 
all  the  roofs  of  ordinary  structures,  it  is  sometimes  hard  to  distin- 
guish it  from  among  the  other  roofs  which  have  been  added  as 
additions  to  it. 

Gambrel  Roof.  The  gambrel  roof  is  a  variation  of  the  simple 
pitch  or  gable  roof  and  was  probably  developed  from  it  to  meet 
a  new  condition,  namely,  the  necessity  for  more  space  in  the 
portion  of  the  building  immediately  under  the  roof  surface.  This 
form  of  roof  has  a  sort  of  gable  at  each  end  of  the  building,  but  the 
gable  is  not  triangular  in  shape,  as  is  shown  in  Fig.  164.  It  will  be 
seen  that  the  roof  surface  has  been  broken  near  the  middle  on  both 
sides  of  the  building  and  that  the  portion  below  the  break  has  been 


Fig.  165. 


Mansard  Roof 


made  steeper,  and  the  portion  above  the  break  flatter  than  would 
be  the  case  in  a  simple  roof  surface  for  a  building  of  the  same  size 
with  a  gable  roof.  This  arrangement  allows  of  considerably  more 
space  and  much  greater  head  room  in  the  attic.  The  position  of 
the  break  in  the  roof  surface  may  be  varied  to  suit  the  taste  of  the 
designer,  and  the  slopes  of  both  the  upper  and  the  lower  parts  of 
the  roof  may  be  arranged  as  desired.  Gambrel  roofs  may  be  seen 
on  many  old  houses  built  in  the  Colonial  days,  and  they  have  lately 
come  again  into  favor  for  the  roofs  of  cottages  and  small  suburban 
or  country  houses. 

Mansard  Roof.  The  mansard  roof,  called  by  the  name  of  the 
architect  who  introduced  it,  is  like  the  gable  roof  except  that  it 
slopes  very  steeply  from  each  wall  toward  the  center,  instead  of 


124 


CARPENTRY 


113 


from  two  opposite  walls  only,  and  it  has  a  nearly  flat  deck  on  top. 
This  form  of  roof  gives  better  rooms  in  the  attic  space  than  does 
either  of  the  two  forms  already  described.  It  was  at  one  time  very 
popular  for  large  suburban  and  city  houses,  but  it  is  now  seldom 


Fig.  166.     Hip  Roof  with  Ridge 


employed.    The  mansard  roof  is  shown  in  Fig.  165.    It  bears  a  close 
relation  to  the  so-called  hip  roof. 

Hip  Roof.  The  hip  roof  also  slopes  from  all  four  walls  toward 
the  center,  but  not  so  steeply  as  does  the  mansard  roof.  It  is 
usually  brought  to  a  point  or  a  ridge  at  the  top,  as  in  Fig.  166,  but 
sometimes  it  is  finished  with  a  small  flat  deck,  as  in  Fig.  167.  The 
hip  roof  as  a  rule  allows  of  very  Httle  useful  space  in  the  attic,  and 


Fig.  167.     Hip  Roof  with  Deck 


if  this  type  of  roof  is  employed  it  is  usually  done  with  the  idea  of 
sacrificing  the  attic  space  and  doing  without  the  rooms  under  the 
roof  for  the  sake  of  the  exterior  appearance. 

Valley  Roof.     In  Fig.  168  is  shown  a  very  simple  form  of  what 
is  known  as  a  valley  roof.    It  is  a  combination  of  two  simple  pitch 


125 


114 


CARPENTRY 


roofs  which  intersect  each  other  at  right  angles.  In  the  figure  both 
ridges  are  shown  at  the  same  height,  but  they  are  not  always  built 
in  this  way.  Either  ridge  may  rise  above  the  other,  and  the  two 
roofs  may  have  the  same  pitch  or  different  pitches.    If  the  ridge  of 


Fig.  168.     Valley  Roof 

the  secondary  roof  rises  above  the  ridge  of  the  main  roof,  the  end 
which  projects  above  the  main  ridge  is  usually  finished  with  a  small 
gable  a,  or  a  small  hip  h,  as  shown  in  Fig.  169.  This  arrangement 
does  not  make  a  pleasing  appearance,  however,  and  should  be 
avoided  if  possible.  Almost  all  roofs  are  hip  and  valley  roofs,  as  it 
is  very  seldom  that  a  building  of  any  considerable  size  can  be  cov- 
ered with  a  simple  roof  of  any  of  the  forms  described  above.    There 


Fig.  169. 


Hip  and  Valley  Roof  Showing  Dififerent  Roof  Levels  Around 
Inner  Court 


are  usually  wings  or  projecting  portions  of  some  kind  which  must  be 
covered  with  a  separate  roof  which  must  be  joined  to  the  main 
body  of  the  roof  with  valleys,  and  it  is  these  valleys  which  are  the 


126 


CARPENTRY  115 

cause  of  most  of  the  leaky  roofs,  as  a  large  quantity  of  water  collects 
in  them  and  it  is  no  easy  matter  to  make  them  waterproof. 

Rafters.  In  all  roofs  the  pieces  which  make  up  the  main  body 
of  the  framework  are  called  the  rafters.  They  are  for  the  roof  what 
the  joists  are  for  the  floor,  and  what  the  studs  are  for  the  wall.  The 
rafters  are  inclined  members,  spaced  from  16  to  24  inches  apart  on 
centers,  which  rest  at  the  bottom  on  the  plate,  and  are  fastened  at 
the  top  in  various  ways,  according  to  the  form  of  the  roof.  The 
plate,  therefore,  forms  the  connecting  link  between  the  wall  and  the 
roof  and  is  really  a  part  of  both  of  them.  The  size  of  the  rafters 
varies,  depending  upon  their  length  and  the  distances  at  which  they 
are  spaced.  It  is  sometimes  allowable  to  use  them  as  small  as  2X4 
inches,  but  this  should  be  done  only  for  the  lightest  work.  The  size 
of  the  rafters  for  an  ordinary  dwelling  house  is  usually  2X8  inches. 
In  larger  buildings,  such  as  school  houses,  it  may  be  found  necessary 
to  use  rafters  as  large  as  2X 10  inches,  when  they  are  of  a  considerable 
length. 

The  material  usually  employed  for  rafters  is  the  same  as  that 
used  for  the  joists  and  for  the  studding.  This  is  generally  spruce  in 
the  eastern  states  and  yellow  pine  in  the  Mississippi  Basin,  but  may 
be  hemlock  in  very  cheap  work.  The  size  and  spacing  of  the  rafters 
vary  to  some  extent  with  the  location  of  the  building,  as  in  the 
northern  part  of  the  country  the  roof  is  called  upon  to  carry  a 
considerable  weight  of  snow  and  ice,  while  in  the  south  there  is  little 
or  no  snow  and  the  roof  is  not  called  upon  to  carry  so  much  weight. 
If  snow  freezes  and  packs  on  the  roof  it  may  weigh  as  much  as 
twenty-five  or  thirty  pounds  per  square  foot  of  roof  surface.  The 
wind  pressure  must  also  be  considered,  as  well  as  the  weight  of  the 
material  composing  the  roof  itself. 

The  connection  of  the  rafters  to  the  wall  is  the  same  in  all  the 
types  of  roofs  described  above.  They  are  not  framed  into  the  plate 
but  are  simply  spiked  to  it,  being  cut  at  the  bottom  so  as  to  rest 
on  top  of  it.  Usually  they  extend  out  for  a  considerable  distance 
beyond  the  wall  to  form  the  eaves,  as  shown  in  Fig.  170,  and  they 
are  then  cut  over  the  plate  and  allowed  to  continue  beyond  it.  The 
usual  length  for  the  eaves  is  about  1  foot,  but  it  may  vary  to  suit 
the  taste  of  the  designer  of  the  building.  Sometimes  the  rafter  itself 
is  not  extended  beyond  the  plate,  but  is  cut  off  just  as  though  it 


127 


116 


CARPENTRY 


was  not  intended  that  it  should  continue  beyond  the  wall  line,  and 
a  separate  piece  called  a  "false  rafter"  is  nailed  against  it  alongside 
to  form  the  projection  for  the  eaves,  as  shown  in  Fig.  171.  This 
piece  does  not  always  continue  in  the  same  line  with  the  real  rafter. 


Fig.  170.     Rafter  Extended 
to  Form  the  Eaves 


Fig.  171.     False  Rafter 


but  may,  and  usually  does,  make  an  angle  with  it,  as  shown  in  the 

figure,  so  as  to  give  a  break  in  the  roof  hne  near  the  line  of  the  eaves. 

It  is  sometimes  desired  to  form  a  concealed  gutter  around  the 

eaves,  and  in  order  to  do  this  the  joists  are  allowed  to  extend  10  or 


Fig.  172.     Roof  Showing  Concealed  Gutter 

12  inches  and  on  the  ends  of  these  a  2X4  is  laid  flat  and 
nailed,  and  the  rafters  rest  on  this  piece.  The  scantling  is  nailed 
directly  above  the  plate  and  the  gutter  is  run  in  notches  cut  in  the 


128 


CARPENTRY 


117 


overhanging  joists  which  also  support  the  cornice.  The  general 
appearance  is  shown  in  Fig.  172  and  the  details  of  the  construction 
in  Fig.  173. 

There  are  four  different  kinds  of  rafters  used  in  framing  roofs, 
all  of  which  may  sometimes  be  found  in  a  single  roof  frame,  if  the 
roof  is  of  complicated  design,  while  ordinary  roofs  may  be  framed 
with  only  the  more  simple  forms  of  rafters.  In  Fig.  174  is  shown  in 
plan  the  framing  for  a  roof  in  which  all  four  kinds  of  rafters  are  to 
be  found.  AAA  are  the  common  rafters,  which  extend  from  the 
plate  to  the  ridge  and  which  are  not  connected  with  or  crossed  by 
any  of  the  other  rafters.  B  B  B  are  jack  rafters,  which  are  shorter 
than  the  common  rafters  and  which  do  not  extend  from  the  plate  to 
the  ridge,  but  are  connected  at  one  end  to  a  hi-p  or  valley  rafter. 
C  C  are  the  valley  rafters,  which  are  needed  at  every  corner  between 
the  main  building  and  an  ell  or  other  projection,  while  the  hip 
rafters  B  D  are  found  at  the 
outside  corners.  At  the  points 
where  the  valley  rafters  are 
situated  there  are  troughs  or 
valleys  formed  by  the  roof 
surfaces — as  these  pitch  down- 
ward on  both  sides  toward  the 
valley  rafter — while  at  the 
outside  corners,  where  the  hip 
rafters  are  found,  the  roof 
surfaces  pitch  upward  on  each 
side  to  the  hip  rafter.  This 
may  be  seen  and  perhaps 
better  understood  by  looking 
at  any  hip  and  valley  roof  as 
actually  constructed,  and  as  this  type  of  roof  is  very  common  there 
will  be  no  lack  of  examples. 

Pitch  of  Roof.  The  pitch  of  a  roof  is  the  term  used  to  indicate 
the  slope  of  the  sides  of  the  roof  surface  or  the  inclination  of  these 
sides  with  respect  to  a  horizontal  plane  or  a  surface  absolutely  flat 
and  parallel  to  the  horizon.  Evidently  the  pitch  of  any  roof  may 
vary  to  an  almost  infinite  extent.  It  may  be  absolutely  flat  or  it 
may  be  practically  vertical,  or  it  may  be  inclined  at  any  angle  between 


Fig.  173. 


Construction  of  Concealed  Gutter  of 
Fig.  172 


129 


118 


CARPENTRY 


these  two  limits.  Unfortunately  there  are  several  systems  in  use 
for  indicating  the  pitch  or  the  amount  of  the  angle  of  the  slope,  so 
that  there  is  likely  to  be  some  misunderstanding  about  it.  Usually, 
however,  some  one  system  is  in  use  in  any  one  section  of  the  country 
and  there  is  a  general  understanding  that  this  is  the  system  intended 
when  speaking  of  the  pitch  of  a  roof.  The  most  simple  way  of  indi- 
cating the  pitch  and  at  the  same  time  the  most  accurate  way,  is  to 
give  the  angle  which  the  roof  surface  makes  with  a  horizontal  plane 
Thus  the  pitch  of  the  roof  may  be  thirty  degrees,  or  forty-five  degrees 


Fig.  174.     Plan  of  Roof  Framing  Showing  Use  of  Four  Kinds  of  Rafters 

or  sixty  degrees.  This  system  is  much  in  use  among  civil  engineers, 
by  whom  it  is  favored  on  account  of  its  accuracy  and  the  small 
probability  of  its  being  misunderstood,  but  it  is  not  much  in  use 
among  carpenters  and  architects,  who  generally  prefer  to  use  some 
other  system. 

Another  method  of  indicating  the  slope  of  the  roof  surfaces  is 
to  take  the  rise  of  the  roof  at  the  center  of  the  span,  or  the  vertical 
distance  from  the  top  of  the  plate  to  the  under  side  of  the  rafters 
at  the  center  of  the  span,  and  to  divide  this  distance  by  the  span 
itself  or  the  distance  between  the  inside  edges  of  two  rafters  which 


180 


CARPENTRY  119 

come  opposite  to  each  other  in  the  roof  frame,  at  the  point  where 
they  intersect  the  top  surface  of  the  plate.  The  fraction  thus  obtained 
is  used  to  express  the  degree  of  slope  of  the  roof,  or  the  angle  that  the 
roof  surface  makes  with  the  horizontal  plane,  in  the  following  way : 
If  the  span  of  the  roof  between  the  edges  of  the  rafters  at  the  level 
of  the  top  of  the  plate  is  20  feet  and  the  rise  of  the  roof  at  the  center, 
measured  vertically  from  the  top  of  the  plate  to  the  under  side  of 
the  rafters,  is  10  feet,  then  the  roof  is  of  half  pitch,  since  the  fraction 
obtained  by  dividing  the  rise  of  the  roof  by  the  span  of  the  roof  is 
one  over  two  or  one  half.  The  angle  which  this  roof  surface  makes 
with  the  horizontal  plane  is  forty-five  degrees,  since  the  rise  at  the 
center  is  equal  to  half  the  span,  and  the  rise  of  the  sloping  rafter  is 
equal  to  its  run  or  its  projection  on  the  horizontal  plane.  This  slope 
is  also  called  a  square  slope  or  a  square  pitch  for  the  reason  that  the 
rise  of  the  rafter  is  equal  to  its  run.  In  this  roof  also  it  will  be  seen 
that  the  rafter  rises  a  distance  of  12  inches  for  each  foot  of  run, 
counting  the  rise  always  from  the  level  of  the  top  of  the  plate  and 
the  run  from  the  point  where  the  under  side  of  the  rafter  intersects 
the  top  of  the  plate.  Thus  at  the  center  of  the  roof  the  run  is  10  feet 
and  the  rise  is  also  10  feet.  If  this  same  roof  were  one  of  full  pitch, 
the  rise  at  the  center  of  the  span  would  be  20  feet,  equal  to  the  span 
itself,  and  there  would  be  2  feet  of  rise  for  each  foot  of  run.  This 
would  make  a  very  steep  roof,  in  fact  it  is  very  seldom  so  steep  a 
roof  is  used  in  ordinary  work.  A  two-thirds  pitch  would  be  a  little 
less  steep  than  the  full  pitch,  between  the  full  pitch  and  the  half 
pitch,  and  this  roof  would  have  a  rise  of  16  inches  for  each  foot  of 
run,  so  that  if  the  span  were  20  feet,  as  in  the  case  of  the  other  roofs 
just  mentioned,  the  rise  at  the  center  of  the  span  would  be  160  inches 
or  13  feet  and  4  inches.  The  reason  why  this  pitch  is  called  a  two- 
thirds  pitch  is  that  in  the  case  of  a  full  pitch  roof  the  rise  for  each  foot 
of  run  is  24  inches,  in  this  case  the  rise  for  each  foot  of  run  is  16  inches, 
and  16  inches  is  just  two-thirds  of  24  inches.  Also  the  rise  at  the 
center  of  the  span,  13  feet  and  4  inches,  is  just  two-thirds  of  the  span, 
which  is  20  feet.  Whenever  it  is  desired  to  give  a  roof  a  steeper  pitch 
than  the  half  pitch,  the  two-thirds  pitch  is  generally  employed. 

If  the  roof  is  one  of  one-third  pitch,  the  rise  of  the  rafter  for  each 
foot  of  run  will  be  one-third  of  the  24  inches  which  are  required  to 
make  a  full  pitch,  one-third  of  this  being  8  inches.    Thus  a  one-third 


131 


120  CARPENTRY 

pitch  roof  has  a  rise  of  8  inches  for  each  foot  of  run,  and  the  rise  at 
the  center  of  the  span  is  one-third  of  the  entire  span.  If  the  span  of 
the  roof  is  20  feet,  the  rise  at  the  center  of  the  span  will  be  6  feet  and 
8  inches,  or  just  one-half  as  much  as  in  the  case  of  the  roof  of  the 
same  span  and  with  a  two-thirds  pitch. 

If  the  roof  has  a  "one-quarter  pitch,"  this  means  that  the  rise 
of  the  rafter  for  each  foot  of  run  is  one-quarter  of  24  inches,  which  is 
6  inches,  and  that  the  rise  of  the  roof  at  the  center  of  the  span  is  one- 
quarter  of  the  entire  span.  If  the  roof  has  a  span  of  20  feet,  this 
will  make  the  rise  in  the  case  of  a  one-quarter  pitch  equal  to  5  feet. 

The  pitches  mentioned  above  are  the  most  common  pitches  and 
those  most  generally  used,  though,  of  course,  any  pitch  may  be  used 
as  desired.  The  two-thirds  pitch  corresponds  to  an  angle  with  the 
horizontal  of  about  fifty-three  degrees,  and  the  one-half  pitch  corre- 
sponds exactly  with  an  angle  of  forty-five  degrees.  The  one-third 
pitch  corresponds  to  an  angle  of  thirty-three  and  three-quarters 
degrees  and  the  one-quarter  pitch  corresponds  with  an  angle  twenty- 
six  and  one-half  degrees.  From  this  it  will  be  seen  that  the  names  of 
the  pitches,  one-third,  one-half,  and  one-quarter,  do  not  express  the 
relation  of  the  angles  which  the  various  slopes  make  with  the  hori- 
zontal to  the  angle  made  by  the  roof  of  full  pitch. 

There  are  several  factors  which  enter  into  the  problem  of  deter- 
mining the  most  suitable  pitch  to  give  a  roof,  and  they  must  be 
carefully  considered  before  arriving  at  a  decision.  In  the  first  place 
there  is  to  be  considered  the  appearance  of  the  finished  roof  when 
the  building  is  completed.  In  this  connection  it  may  be  said  that 
personal  preference  and  individual  taste  on  the  part  of  the  designer 
are  the  determining  factors,  and  that  no  hard  and  fast  rules  can  be 
laid  down.  Another  thing  which  must  be  thought  of  is  the  relative 
cost  of  the  different  slopes  or  pitches,  as  this  is  often  of  great  impor- 
tance and,  in  the  case  of  a  large  number  of  buildings,  would  make 
considerable  difference  in  cost.  It  may  be  said  that  in  general  a 
roof  with  a  comparatively  low  pitch,  say  about  thirty  degrees,  corre- 
sponding to  a  rise  of  approximately  6|  inches  per  foot  of  run,  is 
the  most  economical  so  far  as  the  roof  framing  alone  is  concerned. 
Of  course  such  a  roof  gives  no  accommodation  in  the  attic  portion  of 
the  building.  Consideration  must  also  be  given  to  the  question  of 
the  climate  in  which  the  proposed  building  is  to  be  erected,  as  this 


132 


CARPENTRY  121 

will  have  a  very  decided  influence  upon  the  decision  in  regard  to  the 
most  suitable  pitch  for  the  roof.  In  cold  northern  climates  where 
the  snowfall  is  great,  it  is  best  to  have  a  roof  with  a  steep  pitch,  so 
that  it  will  shed  the  snow  and  rain,  or  melted  snow  as  quickly  and  as 
thoroughly  as  is  possible.  In  a  warm  southern  climate  where  there 
is  no  snow  and  where  the  rain  fall  is  not  large,  a  roof  of  smaller  pitch 
may  safely  be  used  and  will  be  more  economical  of  construction. 
The  character  of  the  material  to  be  used  for  covering  the  roof  sur- 
faces must  also  be  remembered  in  determining  the  pitch,  since  if 
this  roof  covering  is  very  impervious  to  water  the  roof  may  be  given 
a  low^er  pitch  than  if  the  roof  covering  is  more  easily  penetrated  by 
rain  and  snow.  In  general  it  may  be  said  that  roofs  covered  with 
slates  may  be  safely  given  a  pitch  of  from  5  to  5|  inches  to  the  foot 
run,  while  a  roof  covered  with  shingles  must  not  be  flatter  than 
thirty  degrees  or  nearly  7  inches  to  the  foot  run.  Flat  roofs  should 
be  covered  with  some  preparation  of  tar  and  gravel,  or  with  metal, 
tin,  copper,  galvanized  iron,  or  zinc.  Any  roof  which  has  a  rise  of 
less  than  3  inches  to  the  foot  may  be  considered  to  be  flat. 

ROOF  FRAME 

Layout  of  Roof  Plan.  The  laying  out  of  the  roof  plan  for  a 
building  is  a  problem  which  requires  some  little  thought  and  skill 
and  it  may  be  well  to  give  a  little  space  to  a  consideration  of  the 
best  way  in  which  to  approach  this  problem.  Suppose  that  we  have 
a  frame  building  whose  general  outhne  in  plan  is  as  shown  in  Fig. 

175,  and  on  which  we  wish  to  plan  a  hip  and  valley  roof.  There  are, 
we  will  say,  two  projections  or  wings  on  the  front  of  the  building,  at 
A  A,  another  wing  on  the  right-hand  side  of  the  building  at  B,  and 
another  wing  on  the  back  of  the  building  at  C. 

The  first  thing  to  do  is  to  draw  the  rectangle  A  B  C  D,'m  Fig. 

176,  enclosing  the  main  portion  of  the  building,  and  leaving  out  the 
wings  or  projections.  From  each  corner  of  the  rectangle  A  B  C  D, 
may  be  drawn  a  hne  at  forty-five  degrees,  with  the  side  of  the  rec- 
tangle, each  pair  of  which  will  meet  at  the  points  R  R,  and  these  points 
R  R  may  be  connected  by  a  line  parallel  to  the  long  sides  of  the 
rectangle.  This  is  a  plan  of  a  simple  hip  roof  covering  the  main 
portion  of  the  building,  E  being  the  ridge  and  G  G  G  G  being  the 
hip  fines.    The  projecting  portions  or  wings  are,  however,  not  yet 


133 


122 


CARPENTRY 


covered  and  in  order  to  take  care  of  them  some  further  planning  is 
necessary.  Let  us  consider  the  two  wings  on  the  front  of  the  build- 
ing, marked  A  A,in  Fig.  175.    We  will  decide  to  cover  these  with  a 

simple  gable  roof  and  for 


1 


^ 


this  the  first  step  is  to  draw 

in  the  ridges.     These  ridges 

will,  of  course,  come  exactly 

in  the  center  of  the  wings 

and  will  be  shown  on  the 

plan  by  a  line  in  the  center 

of  the  plan  of  the  wings, 

perpendicular   to   the    line 

of  the   front.    These  lines 

should     be     drawn    in    as 

shown  in  Fig.  177,  where  they  are  marked  E  E.    The  lines  E  E 

intersect  the  hip  lines  marked  G  G,  in  Fig.  176,  at  a  point  about 

half  way  between  the  corners  D  and  C,  and  the  peaks  R  R.    In 


Fig.  175.     Ground  Plan  of  Building  on  Which 
Rafter  Must  Be  Placed 


Fig.  176.     Plan  of  Roof  Covering  Main  Portions  of  the  Building 


order  to  look  well  the  slope  or  pitch  of  the  sides  of  the  pitch  roof 
which  covers  the  wings  A  A,  must  be  the  same  as  the  slope  or  pitch 
of  the  end  of  the  hip  roof  shown  in  Fig.  176  and  there  marked  S  S, 


134 


CARPENTRY 


123 


and  thus  the  roof  of  the  wing  A  will  on  that  side  become  a  part  of 
the  roof  over  the  main  portion  of  the  building,  and  the  lower  portion 
of  the  hip  hne  G  may  be  erased,  leaving  only  the  upper  portion 
showing  as  a  hip,  as  indicated  in  Fig.  177.  The  other  side  of  the 
pitch  roof  over  the  wing  A  will,  however,  not  correspond  with  any 
slope  in  the  roof  over  the  main  portion  of  the  building  and  must 
intersect  it  in  some  line.  Since  the  ridge  E  is  at  the  top  of  this  roof 
surface  and  the  wall  line  of  the  wing  A  is  at  the  bottom  of  the  roof 
surface,  a  line  drawn  from  the  corner  in  which  the  wall  line  of  the 
wing  intersects  the  wall  line  of  the  main  portion  of  the  building,  to 


X.-  -  y 

B 

zr-- 

£ 

G/       / 

/ 

\ 
/ 

1 

V 

\ 
f/ 

C 

£ 

E 

Fig.  177.     Added  Development  of  Roof  Plan  Covering  Wings  A,  B,  and  C  of  Fig.  175 

the  point  in  which  the  ridge  line  intersects  the  hip  line  of  the  main 
roof,  will  be  the  line  of  intersection  of  the  two  roofs.  This  Hne  is 
shown  in  Fig.  177,  where  it  is  marked  ¥.  The  Hne  F  in  the  plan.  Fig. 
177,  will  represent  a  valley.  Thus  we  have  the  two  wings,  A  A, 
Fig.  175,  completely  roofed  over,  and  the  small  roofs  connected  to 
the  large  main  roof. 

Suppose  that  we  wish  to  cover  the  wing  on  the  right-hand  side 
of  the  building  also  with  a  simple  gable  roof.  This  wing  is  marked  B 
in  Fig.  175.  We  proceed  in  the  same  way  as  explained  for  the  wings 
A  A,  drawing  the  ridge  Hne  E,  in  Fig.  177,  until  it  intersects  the 


135 


124  CARPENTRY 

hip  line  of  the  main  roof  G  and  then  drawing  the  valley  line  F.  The 
slope  on  the  back  side  of  the  roof  over  the  wing  B  should  have  the 
same  slope  as  the  back  side  of  the  main  hip  roof  and,  therefore,  the 
lower  part  of  the  hip  line  G,  starting  at  the  point  B,  can  be  erased, 
leaving  only  the  three  lines,  E,  F,  and  G,  shown  in  Fig.  177.  Thus 
the  wing  B  is  completely  roofed  over  and  shown  in  plan.  The  line 
F  in  this  case  also  represents  a  valley.  Suppose  that  we  wish  to 
cover  the  wing  on  the  back  of  the  building,  marked  C  in  Fig.  175, 
with  a  hip  roof  instead  of  a  gable  roof. 

We  will  start  at  the  outside  corners,  and  from  these  points  draw 
lines  G  G  in  Fig.  177  at  forty-five  degrees  with  the  front  and  side 
wall  lines  of  the  wing,  until  they  meet.  The  lines  must  meet  exactly 
in  the  center  of  the  wing  between  the  two  side  wall  lines,  and  from 
this  point  a  line  should  be  drawn  at  right  angles  to  the  front  wall 
line  of  the  wing,  but  away  from  this  wall  line  instead  of  towards  it. 
This  line  is  marked  E  in  Fig.  177.  It  will  intersect  the  hip  line  G 
of  the  main  roof  and  from  this  point  of  intersection  a  line  F  should 
be  drawn  at  forty-five  degrees,  which  will  meet  the  side  wall  line  of 
the  wing  in  the  point  in  which  this  side  wall  line  meets  the  main  wall 
of  the  building.  One  slope  of  the  roof  over  the  wing  C,  Fig.  175, 
will  be  the  same  as  the  slope  of  the  end  of  the  main  hip  roof,  and  so 
the  lower  part  of  the  line  G,  starting  at  the  point  A,  may  be  erased 
and  the  upper  part  only  left  to  show  as  a  hip  line.  The  line  F  in  this 
case  also  will  be  a  valley  line.  Thus  the  wing  C,  Fig.  175,  will  be 
completely  roofed  over  and  shown  on  the  plan.  Our  roof  plan  is 
now  complete  in  outline,  all  the  lines  marked  E  being  ridges,  all 
the  lines  marked  G  being  hip  lines,  and  all  the  lines  marked  F  being 
valley  lines.  The  same  method  of  procedure  may  be  followed  out 
in  the  case  of  any  roof  plan,  and  the  final  complete  plan  obtained  by 
successive  steps  as  explained  above.  The  first  step  is  always  to  lay 
out  the  roof  over  the  main  portion  of  the  building  and  then  to  proceed 
with  the  roofing  of  the  projecting  portions  or  wings. 

Ridge.  In  the  lean-to  roof  the  rafters  rest  at  the  top  against 
the  wall  of  the  building  of  which  the  ell,  or  porch,  is  a  part;  and  the 
work  of  framing  the  roof  consists  simply  in  setting  them  up  and 
securing  them  in  place  with  spikes  or  nails.  The  pitch  roof,  how- 
ever, is  formed  on  the  principle  that  two  pieces  which  are  inclined 
against  each  other  will  hold  each  other  up,  and  so  the  rafters  must 


136 


CARPENTRY 


125 


rest  against  each  other  at  the  top  in  pairs,  as  shown  in  Fig.  178. 
It  is  customary  to  insert  between  the  rafters,  at  the  top,  a  piece  of 
board  about  1  inch  in  thickness  and  deep  enough  to  receive  the 
whole  depth  of  the  rafter,  as  shown  at  A  in  Fig.  179.    This  piece  of 


Fig.  178.     Construction  of  Ridge 


Fig.  179.     Placing  of  Ridge  Pole  between 
Abutting  Ends  of  Rafters 


board  is  called  the  ridge  or  the  ridge  pole  and  extends  the  whole 
length  of  the  roof.  It  serves  to  keep  the  rafters  from  falling  side- 
ways, and  keeps  the  roof  frame  in  place  until  the  roof  boarding  is 
on.  It  is  sometimes  extended  above  the  rafters,  and  forms  a  center 
for  some  form  of  metal  finish  for  the  ridge,  as  shown  in  Fig.  180. 

Interior  Supports.  In  small  roofs  which  have  to  cover  only 
narrow  buildings  and  in  which  the  length  of  the  rafters  is  short, 
there  is  no  necessity  for  any  interior  support,  and  when  the  rafters 


Fig.  180.      Ridge   Pole   Extended 
above  Roof 


Fig.    181.     System   of   Interior 
Supports  for  Rafters 


have  been  cut  to  the  correct  length,  set  up  against  the  ridge,  and 
secured  in  place,  the  roof  framing  is  complete.  In  long  spans,  how- 
ever, the  roof  would  sag  in  the  middle  if  it  were  not  strengthened  in 
some  way,  so  it  is   customary  to  support  long  rafters  as  near  the 


137 


126 


CARPENTRY 


center  as  possible.  This  support  may  be  formed  by  placing  a  piece 
of  studding  under  each  rafter,  somewhere  between  the  plate  and 
the  ridge,  and  if  this  is  done  very  much  lighter  rafters  can  be  used 
than  would  otherwise  be  considered  safe.     It  is  claimed  by  some 

that  it  is  cheaper  to  do  this  than 
to  use  the  heavy  rafters.  A  more 
common  method  is  to  use  fewer 
upright  pieces  and  to  place  a 
horizontal  piece  A  on  the  top  of 
them,  running  the  whole  length  of 
the  building  and  supporting  each 
rafter.  This  is  shown  in  Fig.  181. 
An  upright  piece  B  should  be 
placed  under  every  sixth  or  sev- 
enth rafter  in  order  to  give  the  necessary  stiffness  to  the  whole 
construction.  For  the  uprights,  pieces  of  ordinary  studding  2X4 
inches  or  2X3  inches  in  size  may  be  used.  When  there  is  to  be  a 
finished  attic  in  the  building,  these  upright  studs  may  be  made  to 


Fig.  182.    Collar  or  Tie  Beams  as  Interior 
Support  for  Rafters 


Fig.  183.     Example  of  Double  Gable  Roof 

form  the  side  walls  of,  the  attic  rooms,  and  are  then  spaced 
about  16  inches  on  centers  to  receive  the  laths.  Such  walls  are 
called  dwarf  walls. 

Another  form  of  interior  support  is  the  collar  beam  or  tie  beam. 
This  is  a  piece  of  timber  which  extends  between  the  rafters  on  opposite 


138 


3  n 


•^    X    a 


FIREPLACE  IN  DINING  ROOM  OF  HOUSE  FOR  MR.  C.  M.  THOMPSON,  CAMBRIDGE,  MASS. 

Cram,  Goodhue  &  Ferguson,  ArcMtects,  Boston  and  New  York. 


CARPENTRY 


127 


sides  of  the  roof  and  ties  them  together,  as  shown  at  A  in  Fig.  182. 
It  may  be  a  piece  of  board  about  1  inch  thick  and  8  or  10  inches 
wide,  which  is  nailed  onto  the  side  of  the  rafter  at  each  end.  It  is 
placed  as  near  the  center  of  the  rafter  as  may  be  practicable,  and 
in  the  case  where  a  finished  attic  is  required  it  forms  the  support  for 
the  ceiling.  For  this  reason  it  must  be  at  a  considerable  height  from 
the  attic  floor,  and  can  not  always  be  placed  very  near  the  center  of 
the  rafter.  The  important  point  is  to  see  that  it  is  well  nailed  at 
each  end. 


Fig.  184.     Rafter  and  Wall  Framing  for  Double  Gable  Roof 

Double  Gable  Roof.  A  very  interesting  form  of  gable  roof  is 
that  in  which  there  is  a  double  gable  with  a  valley  between,  which 
forms  the  roof  of  an  ell  when  the  main  roof  is  a  simple  pitch  roof. 
This  form  of  roof  is  shown  in  Fig.  183.  Fig.  184  shows  how  such  a 
roof  may  be  framed.  The  piece  A  is  placed  in  the  wall  and  supported 
by  the  studding  so  as  to  serve  as  a  plate  to  receive  the  ends  of  the 
valley  rafters  B.  These,  together  with  the  piece  C,  form  the  framing 
for  the  shallow  valley  between  the  two  gables.  The  valley  rafters 
on  the  outside,  marked  D  in  the  figure,  are  similar  to  those  used  in 


139 


128 


CARPENTRY 


the  case  of  a  single  gable.  The  pieces  E  E  are  jack  rafters  and  are 
very  short.  This  form  of  roof  is  not  common,  but  in  some  places  it 
gives  a  good  effect. 

Qambrel  Roof.  A  gambrel  roof  is  framed  in  very  much  the 
same  way  as  is  a  pitch  roof  or  a  hip  roof.  The  slope  of  the  roof, 
however,  is  broken  at  a  point  between  the  plate  and  the  ridge. 
The  part  of  the  roof  above  this  break  makes  an  angle  with  the  hori- 
zontal plane  of  less  than  forty-five  degrees  usually,  while  the  portion 
below  the  break  makes  an  angle  with  the  horizontal  plane  greater 
than  forty-five  degrees.    This  is  shown  in  Fig.  185. 

The  lower  slope  may  almost  be  considered  a  part  of  the  wall, 
and  at  the  point  where  the  slope  changes  there  is  a  secondary  plate 

from  which  the  upper  slope 
starts,  as  shown  at  A  in  Fig. 
185.  The  secondary  plate  may 
be  utilized  as  a  support  for  the 
ends  of  the  ceiling  joists  B, 
which  should  also  be  securely 
spiked  to  the  rafters,  as  shown 
in  the  figure.  The  rafters  C 
forming  the  upper  slope,  must 
be  cut  over  the  plate  A,  and 
firmly  spiked  to  it,  while  at  the 
top  they  rest  against  a  ridge 
board  B.  The  rafters  E,  form- 
ing the  lower  slope,  are  cut  out 
at  the  top  so  as  to  form  a  seat 
for  the  plate  A,  and  must  be 
very  securely  fastened  at  the  bottom  to  the  main  wall  plate  F. 
It  is  an  excellent  plan  to  have  the  floor  joists  G  spiked  to  the  lower 
rafters,  so  as  to  act  like  tie  beams  across  the  building  and  to  counteract 
the  outward  thrust  of  the  rafters.  Sometimes  these  floor  joists  are 
dropped  below  the  wall  plate  F,  and  are  supported  on  a  ledger  board 
notched  into  the  wall  studding  I.  This  construction  is  not  so  good 
as  that  shown  in  the  figure,  because  the  joist  is  not  so  effective  as  a 
tie  across  the  building.  If  it  is  employed  the  floor  joist  must  be 
securely  nailed  to  the  wall  studding  7,  and  they  must  not  in  any  case 
be  dropped  more  than  2  or  3  feet  below  the  plate.    The  plate  must 


Fig.  185.    Framing  for  Gambrel  Roof 


140 


CARPENTRY 


129 


Fig.    186.      Method   of  Finding 
Contour  for  Gambrel  Roof 


always  be  firmly  nailed  to  each  stud  to  prevent  it  from  being  forced 
outward  as  it  receives  the  thrust  from  the  rafters  E. 

A  good  rule  for  determining  the  point  at  which  to  place  the 
secondary  plate,  and  for  determining  the  general  shape  of  the  roof, 
is  illustrated  in  Fig.  186.  Let  the  points  A 
and  B  represent  the  main  plates  on  each 
side  of  the  building.  Draw  a  line  A  B 
between  them  and  bisect  this  line  at  C. 
With  C  as  a  center  and  C  yl  as  a  radius 
describe  the  semicircle  A  D  E  F  B.  At 
any  distance  G  above  A  B  draw  a  line  D  F 
parallel  to  A  B,  cutting  the  semicircle  at 

the  points  D  and  F.  Also  bisect  the  arc  at  E.  Then  by  joining 
the  points  A  D  E  F  and  B  by  straight  lines  as  shown,  we  will  have 
the  outline  of  a  gambrel  roof.  The  proportions  of  the  roof  may  be 
varied  by  varying  the  distance  G. 

Gambrel  roofs  are  not  very  strong  unless  they  are  stiffened  by 
cross  partitions  in  the  attic  stories,  and  these  should  be  provided 
whenever  it  is  possible.  No  gambrel  roof,  unless  it  is  well  braced, 
should  be  used  on  a  building  which  is  exposed  to  high  winds,  or  which 
is  likely  to  receive  a  heavy  weight  of  snow. 

Mansard  Roof.  A  mansard  roof  is 
framed  in  very  much  the  same  way  as  is  a 
gambrel  roof,  as  may  be  seen  in  Fig.  187. 
Resting  on  the  main  wall  plate  A,  we  have  a 
piece  B  which  is  inclined  slightly  inward,  and 
which  supports  at  its  upper  end  a  second- 
ary plate  C.  On  the  plate  C  rests  the  outer 
end  of  the  deck  rafter  D  which  is  nearly 
horizontal.  The  piece  £  is  a  piece  of  stud- 
ding, 2X4  inches  to  4X6  inches  in  size, 
depending  upon  the  size  of  the  roof.  It  sup- 
ports the  whole  weight  from  the  rafters, 
carrying  this  weight  to  the  main  wall  plate 
and  thence  into  the  walls  of  the  building, 
always    be    straight,    and    the    curved    shape 


Fig.  187.     Framing  for 
Mansard  Roof 


This  member  should 
which  is  usual  on 
mansard  roofs  is  obtained  by  the  use  of  the  furring  piece  E.  The 
piece  E  is  nailed  to  the  upright  member  B  at  the  top,  and  at  the 


141 


130 


CARPENTRY 


Fig.  188.     One  Form  of  Dormer  Window 


bottom  it  is  secured  to  the  lookout  F,  which  also  forms  a  support  for 
the  projecting  cornice.  The  floor  joist  G  is  supported  on  a  ledger 
board  H,  or  it  may  rest  directly  on  the  plate  A.  The  piece  of  stud- 
ding I  is  merely  a  furring  stud 
to  form  the  wall  of  the  attic 
room.  It  may  be  omitted  en- 
tirely if  desired,  or  if  the  attics 
are  to  be  unfinished.  The  ceil- 
ing joist  K  may  be  supported 
on  a  ledger  board  as  shown,  or 
may  be  simply  spiked  to  the 
studding  I  or  to  the  upright  B. 
The  studding  I  may  rest  directly 
on  the  floor  joist  G  with  a  sole 
piece  L  at  the  bottom  as  shown. 
The  plate  C  should  be  of  a  good 
size,  at  least  4X6  inches,  and  should  not  be  placed  more  than  2  or  3 
feet  above  the  ceiling  joists  K.  The  ceiling  joists  act  as  ties  across 
the  building  and  prevent  the  plates  C  from  spreading  apart,  as  they 

receive  the  thrust  from  the 
rafters  D.  For  this  reason 
it  is  better  to  have  the  ceil- 
ing joist  K  fastened  to  the 
upright  B  rather  than  to  the 
furring  stud  /. 

Dormer  Windows.  In 
Figs.  188  and  189  are  shown 
what  are  known  as  dormer 
windows,  this  name  being 
applied  to  all  windows  in  the 
roofs  of  buildings,  whatever 
may  be  their  size  or  shape.  The  figures  show  two  different  kinds 
of  dormer  windows  which  are  in  general  use,  the  one  shown  in 
Fig.  188  resting  entirely  on  the  roof,  while  the  one  shown  in  Fig. 
189  is  merely  a  continuation  of  the  wall  of  the  building  above  the 
line  of  the  eaves.  The  second  type  is  often  seen  on  buildings  only 
one  story  in  height,  while  the  other  kind  is  employed  on  larger 
structures. 


Fig.  189.    Another  Form  of  Dormer  Window 


142 


CARPENTRY 


131 


In  order  to  construct  a  dormer  window  an  opening  must  be 
made  in  the  roof  surface,  and  the  window  must  be  built  up  over  the 
opening.  Headers  are  framed  in  between  two  of  the  rafters  as  shown 
at  A  and  B  in  Fig.  190,  and  thus  a  rectangular  opening  is  formed  in 
the  roof  frame.  The  rafters  C  and  D,  which  form  the  sides  of  the 
opening,  are  called  trimmers  and  should  be  nmch  stronger  than 
the  common  rafters.  Usually  the  trimmers  are  made  by  doubling  the 
ordinary  rafters.  The  headers  receive  the  ends  of  the  rafters  which 
are  cut  by  the  opening,  and  must  be  large  enough  to  carry  the  weight 
which  comes  from  them  besides  supporting  the  walls  of  the  dormer. 
Timbers  4X8  inches  to  6X10  inches,  according  to  the  size  of  the 
dormer,  are  usually  large  enough  for  the  headers  and  often  smaller 
timbers  may  be  safely  used. 

The  headers  are  shown  in  section  at  A  and  B  in  Fig.  191,  and 
it  will  be  noticed  that  they  are  not  used  in  exactly  the  same  way. 
The  piece  at  the  top  A  is 
so  placed  that  its  longer 
dimension  is  at  right  angles 
to  the  plane  of  the  roof, 
while  the  piece  at  the  bot- 
tom B  has  its  longer  dimen- 
sion vertical.  In  the  case 
shown  in  Fig.  189,  where 
the  front  wall  of  the  dormer 
is  merely  an  extension  of 
the  main  wall  of  the  build- 
ing, there  is  no  need  of  the 

lower    header    B,    the    main  Fig.  lOO.      RoorFraming  for  Dormer  Window 

wall  plate  taking  its  plact 

and  supporting  the  studding  for  the  front  wall  of  the  dormer,  as 

shown  at  the  right-hand  side  of  Fig.  191. 

Fig.  191  shows  sections  taken  through  two  dormers  of  the  types 
mentioned  above,  parallel  to  the  direction  of  the  main  rafters  and 
at  right  angles  to  the  main  wall  plate  of  the  building.  At  the  left 
is  a  section  taken  through  the  type  of  dormer  shown  in  Fig.  188, 
while  at  the  right  a  section  of  the  other  type  is  shown.  The  studs 
C  C  which  form  the  side  walls  of  the  dormer,  are  notched  over  the 
trimmer  rafters  and  roof  boarding  about  1  inch,  and  allowed  to  con- 


143 


132 


CARPENTRY 


tinue  downward  to  the  attic  floor.  This  is  shown  at  section  D  D. 
At  E  is  a  section  of  the  trimmer  rafter,  C  is  the  wall  stud,  G  is  the 
attic  floor  boarding,  and  iZ^  is  a  section  of  one  of  the  attic  floor  joists. 
The  studs  C  are  in  line  with  the  studs  forming  the  side  walls  of  the 
attic  room,  so  the  studs  I  can  not  be  carried  down  to  the  attic  floor. 
They  are  stopped,  at  the  bottom,  against  a  2X3  inch  strip  K  which 
is  nailed  to  the  side  of  the  trimmer  rafter.  At  L  is  the  ridge  board, 
and  M  M  M  are  the  short  rafters  which  form  the  pitch  roof  of  the 
dormer.  They  may  be  very  light,  as  they  are  short  and  carry  little 
weight.    They  rest,  at  the  foot,  on  a  plate  0,  and  at  the  top  bear 


Fig.  191.     Framing  Details  for  Both  Types  of  Dormer  Window? 

against  the  ridge  board  L.  In  the  dormer  shown  on  the  right  of  the 
figure  the  rafters  P  are  in  planes  parallel  to  the  main  rafters,  and  a 
furring  piece  S  may  be  nailed  to  each  of  them  so  as  to  give  the  dormer 
roof  any  desired  curve. 

Besides  the  openings  in  the  roof  frame  for  dormer  windows 
there  must  be  other  openings  for  chimneys  and  skylights.  These 
are  formed  in  the  same  way  as  explained  for  the  dormer  openings, 
with  headers  and  trimmer  rafters.  A  plan  of  such  an  opening  is 
shown  at  E  in  the  roof  framing  plan  in  Fig.  174. 


144 


CARPENTRY 


133 


RAFTERS 

The  ends  of  rafters  are  usually  cut  to  fit  accurately  against  one 
another  and  against  the  plates  on  which  they  rest.  The  cutting  of 
these  bevels  is  not  at  all  difficult  when  the  relation  of  the  rafter  to 
the  roof  surfaces  is  seen  and  the  steel  square  is  used  to  show  this 
relation. 

Common  Rafters.  Method  of  Cuttiyig  Bevel.  Fig.  192  shows 
the  bevels  that  are  used  on  the  common  rafters  in  a  simple  gable 
roof  such  as  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  163.  In  Fig.  191,  B  is  the  plate 
and  £  is  a  point  midway  between  the  two  plates,  and  the  distance 
D  E  is  the  run  of  the  common  rafter  C.  P  is  the  point  where  the 
line  drawn  through  D  parallel 
to  the  edges  of  the  rafters  is 
directly  above  the  point  E. 
The  distance  DP  is  usually 
taken  as  the  length  of  the 
rafter. 

The  length  is  taken  from 
these  points  because  the  dis- 
tance D  E  represents  the  exact 
run  and  E  P  represents  the  rise 
for  this  run. 

The  first  step  to  take  in 
laying  out  the  rafter  is  to 
locate  the  point  D  on  the  uncut 
piece    as    shown   in   Fig.    193. 

The  point  is  chosen  so  that  it  is  far  enough  from  the  end  to  form 
the  eaves  FD,  and  the  distance  T  D  is  usually  taken  2  inches 
on  a  2  X  4  inch  and  3  inches  or  more  on  larger  size  rafters.  It  is 
well  to  remember  that  the  measurement  is  to  be  taken  from  the  top 
in  order  that  the  roof  surface  may  always  be  even  and  smooth 
throughout.  Now  the  edge  of  the  blade  of  the  square  must  coin- 
cide with  D,  but  the  position  which  the  square  will  take  depends 
entirely  on  the  pitch. 

In  all  cases  12  inches  is  used  on  the  blade  of  the  square  and  the 
figures  on  the  tongue  depend  on  the  rise  per  foot  of  run.  If  the  rise 
of  the  rafter  is  12  inches  to  the  foot,  12  inches  should  be  used  on  the 
tongue  also.    If  the  rise  is  10  inches,  use  10  inches  on  the  tongue.    In 


Fig.  192. 


Diagram  Showing  Bevel  Used  on 
Common  Rafters 


145 


134 


CARPENTRY 


the  cut  the  rise  is  8  inches  to  the  foot,  the  run  is  12  feet,  the  rise  is 
8  feet,  and  12  and  8  are  the  figures  used. 


Fig.  193.      Method  of  Laying  Out  Rafter  with  Steel  Square 

Usually  the  carpenter  uses  the  edge  M  N  to  obtain  this  bevel 
but  the  line  F  P  may  also  be  used.  The  line  D  0  is  the  heel  or  plate 
cut,  as  shown  in  Figs.  192  and  193.  The  rafter  is  sawed  along  the 
lines  F  D  and  D  0.  Now  the  next  step  is  to  find  the  length  D  P. 
This  may  easily  be  determined  by  any  one  of  four  methods.  The 
easiest  of  these  is  to  turn  to  the  rafter  table  on  the  square.     Oppo- 


Fig.  194.     Method  of  Cutting  the  Bevel  at  the  Top  of  the  Rafter 

site  12 — 8 — I  and  under  the  12  (indicating  feet  run)  the  length  is  given 
as  14  feet  5  inches.  By  extracting  the  square  root  of  the  sums  of 
the  square  of  rise  and  run  the  same  result  is  obtained.     The  third 


146 


CARPENTRY 


135 


way  is  to  measure  the  distance  in  inches  and  twelfths  from  the  12 
on  the  blade  of  the  square  to  the  8.  Each  inch  represents  one  foot 
of  length  and  each  twelfth  rep- 
resents 1  inch.  The  distance  is 
14  feet  5  inches.  The  fourth 
method  is  to  use  the  method 
illustrated  in  Fig.  194.  First 
locate  the  line  DP  and  then 
beginning  £t  D  move  the  square 
along  the  edge  of  the  rafter  as 
many  times  as  there  are  feet  and 
fractions  of  feet  in  the  run;  thus 
the  point  P  is  determined. 

A  little  study  of  the  figures 
will  suffice  to  reveal  to  anyone 
the  reason  for  this  method  of  Fig.  195. 
procedure.  Every  time  the  square 
is  moved  into  a  new  position  it  has  advanced  12  inches  or  1  foot  along 
the  run  of  the  rafter,  since  the  distance  D  E  is  12  inches  and  is  meas- 
ured horizontally.  After  the  square  has  been  moved  twelve  times 
it  has  advanced  12  feet  along  the  run  of  the  rafter  or  the  distance 
required.    This  gives  the  position  of  the  top  bevel.     It  should  be 


Fitting  a  Rafter  against  Ridge 
Board 


Fig.  196.     Cutting  Rafter  for  Con- 
cealed Gutter 


Fig.  197.     Another  Method  of  Cutting 
Rafters  for  Concealed  Gutter 


noticed  that  for  a  run  of  12  feet  the  square  must  be  moved  along 
twelve  times;  for  a  run  of  8  feet,  eight  times;  and  so  on.  The  run 
of  the  rafter  may  be  easily  obtained  by  subtracting  one-half  the 


147 


136 


CARPENTRY 


thickness  of  the  ridge  board  from  one-half  of  the  total  span  of  the 
roof  from  outside  to  outside  of  wall  plates. 

Fig.  194  shows  the  rafter  in  the  position  which  it  would  occupy 
in  a  building,  the  plate  and  a  part  of  the  wall  studding  being  indi- 
cated. When  the  rafter  is  cut  along  the  line  N  S,  Fig.  193,  it  is 
ready  to  be  put  on  the  building.  In  case,  however,  that  a  ridge 
board  is  used  to  hold  the  rafter  in  place,  as  shown  by  R  in  Fig.  192, 
the  rafter  is  cut  parallel  to  N  S  but  shorter,  as  shown  in  Fig.  195, 
one-half  of  the  thickness  of  the  ridge  board  being  cut  away.     The 


/? 

c\ 

^c                        /I 

\ 

/ 

\^ 

y' 

/ 

/ 

/                                         y^ 

\ 

\ 

Fig.  198.     Bevels  for  Valley  and  Hip  Rafters 

cut  at  J)  0,  Fig.  192,  is  horizontal,  and  the  bevels  at  NS  and  VK, 
Figs.  193,  194,  and  195,  are  plumb  cuts. 

In  case  a  concealed  gutter  is  used  and  the  rafter  is  set  directly 
over  the  wall,  the  line  DP  coincides  with  the  line  M N,  Fig.  193, 
and  the  rafter  has  only  the  horizontal  cut  at  the  bottom  or  a  hori- 
zontal and  vertical  cut,  as  shown  in  Figs.  196  and  197. 

Valley  and  Hip  Rafters.  In  Fig.  198  the  rafters  C  C  are  valley 
rafters  and,  although  the  bevels  for  these  rafters  are  not  the  same 
as  the  common  rafter  in  either  roof  surface,  yet  the  bevels  depend 
upon  the  relation  between  the  common  rafters  and  the  valley  rafters. 


148 


CARPENTRY 


137 


It  is  best  to  consider  the  common  rafter  as  the  hypotenuse  of  a  right 
triangle  or  as  the  diagonal  of  a  rectangle  whose  length  is  the  run  of 
the  rafter  and  whose  width  is  the  rise  of  the  rafter.  In  studying  the 
valley  rafter  it  is  evident  that 
there  are  three  dimensions  to  be 
considered.  Rafter  C  extends 
to  the  right  to  the  ridge  of  the 
main  roof  besides  rising.  It 
may,  therefore,  be  considered 
as  the  diagonal  of  a  rectangu- 
lar solid.  For  instance,  if  the 
run  of  the  common  rafter  is 
12  feet,  the  rise  10  feet,  and 
the  distance  MR  is  8  feet,  the 
valley  rafter  will  form  the 
diagonal  of  a  rectangular  solid 
12  inches  X  10  inches  X  8 
inches,  and  its  length  and 
bevels  can  be  found  as  shown 
in  Figs.  199  and  200.    In  Fig. 

198  we  find  the  run  which  is  the  hypotenuse  of  the  triangle 
C  R  M.  That  is,  the  run  of  the  valley  rafter  is  taken  from  the  dis- 
tance between  the  12  and  8  on  the  square.  It  is  14  A  inches, 
showing  that  the  run  of  the  valley  is  14  feet  5  inches.  Now 
the  rise  is  the  same  as  the  rise  of  the  common  rafter  C  R.   That 


Fig.  199.     Method  of  Finding  Bevels  for 
Various  Runs  of  Rafters 


Fig.  200.     Cutting  Bevels  on  Common  Rafter 

is,  it  is  10  feet  and  the  bevel  at  the  foot  of  the  rafter  is  cut  along  the 
blade  of  the  square  when  the  figures  read  14  A  inches  on  the  blade  and 
10  inches  on  the  tongue. 

The  plumb  cut  at  the  top  of  the  rafter  is  made  by  holding  the 
square  in  the  same  position  and  cutting  along  the  tongue. 


149 


138 


CARPENTRY 


The  length  of  the  rafter  is  determined  either  by  measuring  the 
distance  from  the  14tV  and  10  on  the  square  or  by  finding  the  square 
root  of  the  sums  of  the  squares  of  the  three  dimensions.  The  latter 
method  gives  l/l44+100  +  64=17.5=17  feet  6  inches  (approx.). 

The  layout  of  a  hip  rafter  is  the  same  in  principle  as  the  layout 
of  a  valley  rafter.  To  find  the  run  of  a  hip  rafter,  find  the  diagonal 
of  a  square  whose  sides  are  equal  to  the  run  of  the  common  rafter. 
That  is,  if  the  run  of  the  common  rafter  is  10  feet,  the  run  of  the  hip 
rafter  is  the  hypotenuse  of  a  right  triangle  whose  sides  are  10  feet 


A 

F 

1 

/ 

i 

1 
1 

\        1 
\    1 

l\ 
1    \ 

i 

\ 

/ 

I. 

z 

c 

E 

Fig.  201.     Plan  for  Valley  Rafter  Connecting  Two  Roofs  of  Unequal   Pitch 
and  Width 

and  this  distance  is  14.14  feet  or  14  feet  1^  inches.  The  rise  of  the 
hip  is  the  same  as  the  rise  of  the  common  rafter.  If,  then,  the  rise  is 
8  feet,  use  14|  inches  on  the  blade  and  8  inches  on  the  tongue  to  lay 
off  the  horizontal  and  the  plumb  cuts.  The  length  of  the  hip  is  the 
hypotenuse  of  the  triangle  between  the  14|-inch  mark  on  the  blade 
and  the  8-inch  mark  on  the  tongue.  To  compute  this  mathemat- 
ically we  have  1^10H10H8'=  V  264=  16.25  feet,  or  16  feet  3  inches. 
When  a  valley  rafter  serves  to  connect  two  roofs  of  unequal 
pitch  and  width,  the  problem  is  more  complex.  In  Fig.  201  a  lOX  12 
foot  roof  covers  the  main  building  and  an  8X 12  foot  roof  covers  the 
ell  on  the  left.     The  rise  of  rafter  ^  C  is  13  feet  4  inches,  the  rise  of 


150 


CARPENTRY  139 

rafter  C  D  is  7  feet  6  inches,  and  the  ridge  of  the  main  roof  is  nearly 
6  feet  above  the  ridge  of  the  ell. 

One  of  the  valley  rafters  C  F  runs  to  the  ridge  of  the  main  roof, 
its  rise  being  13  feet  4  inches.  In  extending  to  F  the  valley  runs  16 
feet  toward  the  main  ridge,  and  the  distance  AF  is  found  by  propor- 
tion or  by  drawing  the  plan  to  scale  and  measuring. 

In  using  proportion,  take  the  run  of  the  common  rafters  A  C 
and  C  D.  If  the  ridge  of  the  ell  roof  coincides  with  the  ridge  of  the 
main  roof,  the  common  rafter  C  M  would  be  in  proportion  with  C  D, 
thus : 

Rise  of  CD:  vise  of  CM::  run  of  C  Z):  run  of  C M 
Substitutmg  ^,_g„ .  ^g,_^„ . .  10' :  run  of  C  M 

90:160  ::  120:  run  of  CM 
Run  of  CM=213|" 
=  17'-9i" 

Now  find  the  diagonal  distance  C  Fhy  mathematics  or  the  use  of 
the  square.  On  the  square  use  17f  inches  on  the  blade  and  16  inches 
on  the  tongue. 

The  distance  is  23  feet  11  inches.  The  rise  is  13  feet  4  inches. 
Hence,  use  23x1  inches  on  the  blade  and  13|  inches  on  the  tongue 
to  give  the  horizontal  and  plumb  bevels  and  length  of  the  valley. 

To  cut  the  side  bevel  at  the  top,  use  the  distances  C  M  and  A  C, 
cutting  along  the  C  M  side.  In  order,  however,  that  this  cut  car  be 
made  accurately,  the  rafter  must  be  backed  and  the  square  laid  on 
the  backed  surface.  Few  carpenters,  if  any,  ever  back  a  \aLey 
rafter  and  consequently  a  roundabout  method  is  used  to  get  this 
bevel.  The  common  result  is,  that  the  bevel  very  rarely  fits  snugly 
against  the  ridge.  Where  the  rafter  is  not  more  than  2  inches  thick, 
the  misfit  is  not  so  noticeable,  but  in  4-inch  material  the  open  joint 
must  be  "doctored"  by  gauging  and  resawing  after  it  has  been  tried. 

When  the  rafter  is  cut  properly  and  set  in  place  it  will  be  found 
that  the  plane  of  its  top  surface  does  not  lie  in  either  of  the  two  roof 
surfaces.  The  surface  of  the  top  lies  at  an  equal  angle  to  each  roof 
surface  and  one  edge  extends  up  above  the  other  rafter  in  both 
roofs. 

Fig.  202A  shows  how  the  edges  of  a  hip  rafter  extend  over 
the  plate  at  the   bottom.      To  overcome  this  the   rafter  can   be 


151 


140 


CARPENTRY 


backed  or  cut  shorter  as  shown  in  Figs.  202B  and  202C.  To  back  the 
rafter,  lay  the  square  on  the  bevel  at  the  bottom  end  in  the  position 
the  plate  will  occupy.  Now  mark  the  points  C  D  and  draw  the  lines 
D  F  and  C  G  from  these  points  parallel  to  the  edge  of  the  rafter  and 


^2? 

A  B  C 

Fig.  202.     Cutting  Rafter  to  Prevent  Ends  from  Projecting  Over  Plate 

cut  away  the  triangular  part  A  B  DFH  and  A  EC  GH.    This  is  an 

expensive  means  of  making  the  rafter  conform  to  the  roof  surface  and 

most  carpenters  merely  shorten  the  rafter  until  the  outside  corners 

conform  to  the  surfaces,  as  shown  in  Fig.  203. 

If  the  rafter  is  not  to  be  backed,  the  effect  of  backing  can  be 

easily  obtained  by  nailing  a  thin  board  on  the  top  of  the  rafter 

and  giving  this  board  the  proper 
bevel.  The  method  is  illustrated  in 
Fig.  204. 

The  clapboard  A  is  nailed  at 
the  edges  and  the  one  side  wedged 
up  to  the  angle  the  backing  would 
take,  care  being  taken  to  allow  the 
square  to  touch  the  edge  B  B  of  the 
rafter  at  C  C.  The  square  used  on  the 
side  of  the  rafter  gives  the  plumb  cut 
CD,  and  CM  over  the  clapboard  gives 

the  side  bevel.     In  cutting,  the  saw  is  held  at  an  angle  to   coincide 

with  both  CD  and  C M. 

In  the  rafter  B  E,F\g.  201,  the  horizontal  cut  at  E  is  obtained 

by  using  23  feet  11  inches  and  13  feet  4  inches  and  is  the  same  as  the 


Fig.    203.      Simpler    Method    of 
Avoiding  Projecting  Hip  Rafter 


152 


CARPENTRY 


141 


cut  at  C.     The  length  of  the  rafter  can  be  found  by  using  proportion 
or  by  finding  the  length  oi  B  D. 

In  using  proportion,  it  is  evident  that  B  E,  the  run  of  the  short 
valley,  is  to  Ci^  as  7  feet  6  inches,  or  90  inches,  is  to  13  feet  4  inches, 
or  160  inches. 

5£;:287::90:160 
287X90 


BE= 


160 


=  161.5  inches=13  feet  5h  inches 


The  rise  is  7  feet  6  inches  and  the  run  is  13  feet  5|  inches. 

Another  way  in  which  the  problem  may  be  solved,  is  to  find 
where  the  ridge  of  the  ell  intersects  the  main  roof  surface.  The  inter- 
section is  at  a  height  of  7  feet  6  inches  which  is  tW  of  the  run  of 


Fig.  204.     Method  of  Using  Clapboard  to  Cut  Bevel  on  Rafter 

A  C,  or  ®  of  16  feet  and  the  distance  B  D  is  just  9  feet.  Hence,  the 
run  of  5  E  is  Vl¥+9'=  13.45=  13  feet  5|  inches,  and  this  is  -A  of 
the  run  of  the  rafter  C  F.  Hence,  the  run  oiCFis  13.45X  V  =  23  feet 
11  inches. 

The  end  cut  at  B  on  B  E,  that  is,  the  bevel  that  fits  against  CF, 
to  be  cut  accurately,  must  be  handled  like  the  side  bevel  at  F.  First 
cut  the  bevel  at  the  plate  and  get  the  backing  line  that  makes  B  E 
he  in  the  main  roof  surface.  Now,  at  B,  either  back  the  rafter  a 
short  distance,  or  use  a  clapboard  as  in  Fig.  204. 

Jack  Rafters.  Fig.  205  shows  the  plan  of  the  roof  in  which 
there  are,  in  addition  to  hip  and  valley  rafters,  sets  of  jack  rafters. 
A  B  and  B  D  are  hip  rafters,  C  ^  is  a  valley  rafter,  and  the  other 
rafters  are  common  and  jack  rafters.     At  B  E  and  E  H  are  shown 


153 


142 


CARPENTRY 


the  ridge  boards.  Of  the  jack  rafters  there  are  three  different  kinds: 
those  Uke  IJ  which  run  from  the  valley  rafter  to. the  ridge  board; 
those  like  KL  which  run  from  hip  rafter  to  plate;  and  those  hke 
N  T,  which  run  between  the  hip  and  valley  rafters.  These  jack  rafters 
differ  only  in  respect  to  the  bevels  which  have  to  be  cut  on  them. 
The  rafter  7  J  is  a  simple  plumb  cut  at  the  top,  similar  to  the  cuts 
at  the  top  of  the  common  rafters,  and  at  the  bottom  where  the 
rafter  meets  the  valley  there  are  two  cuts — a  plumb  cut  and  the 


D 


K 

\ 

- 

E 

^ 

-- 

- 

.• 

--i 

1 

1 

\ 

1 
1 

\ 

1 

1 

\ 

1             -^ 

I 

1                '^ 

1 

1 
1 

/ 

T 

I 

/ 

/ 

\ 

\ 

\ 

k 

! 

-\ 

1 

1                  A 

// 

) 

1 

A- 

^J 

// 

-  ^ 

r 

\ 

1 

/ 

'/ 

*s 

V 

1 
1 

-4 ■/ 

/ 

/ 

J 

y 

Y 

•^ 

/ 

J{ 

"^^ 

A. 

c 

1 
1 

1 
1 

1 
1 

1 

Fig.  205.     Roof  Plan  Showing  Hip  and  Valley  Rafters  and  Jack  Rafters 

side  cheek  cut — which  are  similar  to  the  cuts  in  a  valley  rafter  where 
it  comes  against  a  ridge  board.  This  cut  has  been  previously 
explained. 

The  rafter  iCX  has  a  simple  horizontal  cut  at  the  bottom  like 
that  used  on  the  common  rafter,  but  at  the  top  there  are  two  cuts 
similar  to  those  at  the  foot  of  rafter  1  J.  The  rafter  N  T  has  two 
cuts  at  both  top  and  bottom.  All  these  bevels  are  obtained  just  as 
the  bevels  for  the  hip  and  valley  rafters. 

The  length  of  a  jack  rafter  is  proportional  to  its  distance  from 
the  ridge  or  plate  to  which  it  is  parallel.     The  longest  jack  rafter  is 


154 


^ 

s 

^ 

M 

O 

.« 

Q 

o 

n 

i* 

S 

ID 

<! 

'A 

u 

n 

d 

^ 

CS 

o 
en 

o 

(L 

0) 

O 

O 

s 

H 

s  -H 


O    w 

CO    >« 
H     O 


CARPENTRY 


143 


equal  in  length  to  a  common  rafter,  and  the  length  steadily  decreases 
as  the  distance  of  the  rafter  from  its  first  full  length  rafter.  The 
exact  difference  in  length  between  the  first  jack  rafter  and  the  next, 
is  determined  by  finding  how  far  apart  the  jack  rafters  are  to  be 
placed,  and  comparing  this  distance  with  the  distance  from  the  top 
of  the  first  full  length  jack  rafter  to  the  point  where  the  hip  or  valley 
rafter  rests  on  the  ridge  board  or  plate.  Suppose,  for  instance,  that 
the  rafters  are  to  be  spaced  2  feet  apart,  and  the  length  of  the  com- 
mon rafter  is  10  feet.  If  the  distance  from  the  top  of  this  rafter  to 
the  point  where  the  valley  rafter  is  fitted  against  the  ridge  is  12  feet, 
it  is  evident  that  each  rafter  will  be  2  feet  shorter.     That  is,  the 


B  A 

Fig.  206.     Roof  Plan  Showing  Rafters  Cut  for  Ogee  Roof 

second  rafter  will  be  8  feet  and  the  next  6  feet  and  so  on.  We  use 
six  spaces,  although  there  are  only  five  rafters,  there  being  no  rafter 
used  where  the  valley  and  ridge  join. 

Curved  Hip  Rafters.  A  form  of  hip  rafter  which  is  sometimes 
a  source  of  considerable  trouble  is  one  which  occurs  in  a  curved  roof, 
such  as  an  ogee  roof  over  a  bay  window,  or  a  curved  tower  roof. 
The  slope  of  the  curve  to  which  the  top  edges  of  the  common  rafters 
must  be  cut,  is  determined  from  the  shape  of  the  section  of  the  curved 
roof  surface,  but  the  curve  at  the  top  of  the  hip  rafter  is  entirely  dif- 
ferent and  must  be  determined  in  another  way.  The  principle  used 
in  finding  this  curve  is  the  same  as  was  employed  in  the  case  of  the 
valley  rafter,  namely,  that  any  line  drawn  in  the  roof  surface  parallel 
to  the  wall  plate  must  be  horizontal,  or  that  it  must  be  exactly  the 
same  elevation  throughout  its  entire  length. 


155 


144  CARPENTRY 

Fig.  206  shows  how  this  may  be  appHed.  At  A  is  shown  a  plan 
of  an  ogee  roof  over  a  bay  window  with  a  hip  rafter  D  E  and  com- 
mon rafters.  At  B  is  shown  an  elevation  of  one  of  the  common  rafters 
cut  to  coincide  with  the  curve  of  the  roof  surface.  The  shape  of  the 
curve  may  be  varied  to  suit  the  fancy  of  the  designer.  At  C  is  shown 
an  elevation  of  the  hip  rafter  D  E,  showing  the  curve  to  which  it  must 
be  cut  in  order  to  fit  into  the  roof. 

To  determine  this  curve  we  draw  on  the  roof  plan  at  A  any  num- 
ber of  lines,  parallel  to  the  wall  plate.  These  must  be  horizontal,  so 
that  any  point  in  either  of  the  lines  is  at  the  same  height  above  the 
top  of  the  plate  as  in  every  other  point  in  the  same  line.  The 
lines  F  G  and  H I  in  the  elevation,  shown  at  B  and  C,  represent  the 
level  of  the  top  of  the  plate.  By  projection  we  find  that  the  line 
KO XL,  for  example,  is  at  a  distance  MN  above  the  top  of  the  plate 
at  the  point  where  it  crosses  the  common  rafter  shown  at  B.  Every 
other  point  in  this  line  is  at  the  same  elevation,  including  the  point 
0,  in  which  it  intersects  the  center  line  of  the  hip  rafter  D  E.  By 
projection  we  can  locate  the  point  0  in  the  elevation  shown  at  C, 
making  the  distance  OP  equal  to  the  distance  MN. 

In  the  same  way  we  can  obtain  as  many  points  in  the  curve  of 
the  hip  rafter  as  we  have  lines  drawn  on  the  roof  plan.  The  lines 
may  be  drawn  as  close  together  as  we  wish,  and  the  number  of  points 
obtained  may  thus  be  increased  indefinitely.  Wlien  a  sufficient 
number  of  points  have  been  located,  the  curve  can  be  drawn  through 
them,  and  a  pattern  for  the  hip  rafter  is  thus  obtained.  The  shape 
of  the  curve  for  a  valley  rafter  is  found  in  the  same  way  as  explained 
for  a  hip  rafter. 

ATTIC  PARTITIONS 

It  is  often  necessary  to  build  partitions  in  the  story  directly 
beneath  the  roof,  and  such  partitions  must  extend  clear  up  to  the 
under  side  of  the  rafters  and  be  connected  with  them  in  some  way. 
This  makes  it  necessary  to  cut  the  tops  of  the  studs  on  a  bevel  to 
correspond  with  the  pitch  of  the  rafters,  and  the  cutting  of  this 
bevel  is  not  always  an  easy  task.  Fig.  207  shows  the  framing  plan 
of  the  roof  of  a  small  simple  building.  In  this  figure  A  B\s  the  ridge. 
The  plate  extends  around  the  outside  from  C  to  I)  to  E  to  F,  and 
back  again  to  C;  and  G  H  I J  KLare  the  rafters.    A  partition  H  M 


156 


CARPENTRY 


145 


is  shown  beneath  the  roof  running  diagonally  across  the  building, 
making  an  angle  with  the  direction  of  the  rafters  and  an  angle  with 
the  direction  of  the  ridge.  At  iV  0  is  shown  another  partition 
running  parallel  to  the  ridge,  and  at  P  Q  still  another,  running  parallel 
to  the  rafters.  Now  since  all  the  rafters  slope  upwards  from  the 
plate  to  the  ridge,  it  is  evident  that  the  tops  of  all  the  studs  must 
be  cut  on  a  bevel  if  they  are  to  fit  closely  against  the  under  sides  of 
the  rafters.  This  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  208,  where  the  stud  A  must 
fit  against  the  rafter  B. 

To  take  the  simplest  case  first,  let  us  consider  the  stud  marked 


r 

1 

// 

/ 

/ 

t 

Q 

1 
1  ^ 

/ 

AT 

// 

1 

1 
1 
1 

1 
1 

1 

^ 

/ 

/ 

/y 

o       \ 
p 

'b\ 

1 

R 

1 

^_ 

-   —   - 

—  — 

— 



—    — 









__J 

c      >v 

^ 

/ 

1 

F 

Fig.  207,     Framing  Plan  of  Roof  of  Simple  Building 

jR,  Fig.  207.  Since  all  the  rafters  have  the  same  pitch  or  slope,  all 
the  studs  in  the  partition  iV  0  will  have  the  same  bevel  at  the  top, 
and  if  we  find  the  bevel  for  one  we  can  cut  the  bevel  for  all.  Fig. 
208  shows  this  stud  drawn  to  a  larger  scale  and  separated  from  the 
rest;  ^  5  Z)  C  is  a  plan  of  the  stud,  and  the  rafter  is  shown  at  E  F  H  G. 
We  will  take  the  distance  F  H,  or  the  run  of  the  part  of  the  rafter 
shown,  as  one  foot  exactly.  Now  if  A^  and  B^  represent  a  side  eleva- 
tion of  the  rafter  and  stud,  the  run  of  the  part  of  the  rafter  shown  is 
the  distance  J  Q,  and  the  distance  Q  0  should  be  equal  to  the  rise  of 


157 


146 


CARPENTRY 


the  rafter  in  one  foot.    Let  the  rise  in  this  case  be  9  inches.    Then 
K  N  shows  the  bevel  of  the  top  of  the  stud.    If  the  stud  is  a  2X4 


Fig.    208.      Studs  Beveled  to  Fit  Under 
Side  ef  Rafter 


Fig.  209.   Cutting  Studs  for  Partition 
Running  Parallel  to  Rafter 


stick,  the  distance  K  Ris  just  4  inches  or  one-third  of  the  run  of  the 
rafter,  and  consequently  the  distance  R  N  is  just  3  inches,  or  one 

third  of  the  rise  of  the  rafter. 

In  the  case  of  the  studs  forming 
the  partition  P  Q  in  Fig.  207,  the  bevel 
is  found  in  the  same  way,  the  only 
difference  being  that  the  rafter  now 
crosses  the  stud,  as  shown  in  Fig.  209, 
where  A  B  C  D  is  the  stud  and  EFGH 
the  rafter,  both  shown  in  plan. 

In  the  case  of  the  partition  H  M, 
Fig.  207,  we  have  to  deal  with  a  some- 
what more  difficult   problem  because 
the  rafter  crosses  the  stud  diagonally 
and  the  studs  must  be  beveled  diag- 
onally on  top  so  that  the  bevel  will  run 
from  corner  to  corner  instead  of  straight 
across  the  stud  from  side  to  side.     An 
enlarged  plan  of  one  stud  with  the  rafter  running  across  it  is  shown 
in  Fig.  210.      Let  A  B  C  D  be   the   stud   and    EFGH  the  rafter; 
I J  L  K  shows  the  rafter  in  elevation  looking  in  the  direction  shown 


Fig.  210.    Cutting  Studs  for  Parti- 
tion Running  Diagonally 


158 


CARPENTRY 


147 


z 

c 

\ 

by  the  arrow,  and  ^i-Bi  C^D^  shows  the  stud  as  seen  from  this 
same  direction.  The  edge  D^  of  the  stud  can  not  be  seen  from  this 
side  and  is  shown  as  a  dotted  Hne  in  the  figure.  The  rafter  runs 
across  the  stud,  thus  giving  the  bevel  ylj  5^  Ci  Di  as  shown  in  the 
figure. 

SPECIAL  FRAMING 

We  have,  in  the  preceding  pages,  considered  the  framing  which 
enters  into  a  building  of  light  construction,  such  as  an  ordinary  dwell- 
ing house,  but  there  are  certain  classes  of  structures  which  call  for 
heavier  framing,  or  framing  of  special  character.  Among  these 
may  be  mentioned  battered  frames,  or  frames  with  inclined  walls; 
trussed  partitions;  inclined 
and  bowled  floors;  special 
forms  of  reinforced  beams 
and  girders ;  the  framing  for 
balconies  and  galleries;  tim- 
ber trusses,  towers  and 
spires,  domes,  pendentives 
and  niches;  and  vaults  and 
groins.  These  subjects  will 
now  be  taken  up  and  dis- 
cussed, and  the  methods  employed  in  framing  such  structures  will 
be  explained. 

Battered  Frames.  Sometimes  it  is  necessary  to  build  a  structure 
with  the  walls  inclined  inward,  so  that  they  approach  each  other  at 
the  top,  and  so  that  the  top  is  smaller  than  the  bottom.  This  is  the 
case  with  the  frames  which  support  water  tanks  or  windmills.  An 
elevation  of  one  side  of  a  frame  of  this  kind  is  shown  in  Fig.  211 
with  a  plan  in  outline  at  C.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  corner  posts 
A  A  are  inclined  so  as  to  approach  each  other  at  the  top,  and  that 
they  are  not  perpendicular  to  the  sill  at  the  bottom.  This  means 
that  the  foot  of  the  post,  where  it  is  tenoned  into  the  sill,  must  be 
cut  on  a  bevel,  and  the  bevel  must  be  cut  diagonally  across  the  post, 
from  corner  to  corner,  since  the  post  pitches  diagonally  toward  the 
center,  and  is  set  so  that  its  outside  faces  coincide  approximately 
with  the  planes  of  the  sides  of  the  structure  as  indicated  in  the 
plan  shown  in  Fig,  212.     The  girts  B,   Fig.  211,  will  also  have 


Fig.  211.     Battered  Frame 


159 


148 


CARPENTRY 


to  have  special  bevels  cut  at  their  ends,  where  they  are  framed  into 
the  posts. 

After  a  corner  post  has  been  cut  to  the  proper  bevel  to  fit  against 
the  sill  the  section  cut  out  at  the  foot  will  be  diamond  shaped,  as 
shown  at  A  B  C  D  in  Fig.  212,  which  shows  a  plan  of  one  corner  of 
the  sill.  It  will  be  noticed  that  the  faces  A  B  and  A  D  oi  the  post 
do  not  coincide  with  the  edges  of  the  sill  A  F  and  A  G.  If  the  struc- 
ture is  merely  a  frame  and  is  not  to  be  covered  over  with  the  board- 
ing on  the  outside,  it  is  not  necessary  that  the  outside  faces  of  the 
post  should  coincide  exactly  with  the  planes  of  the  sides  of  the 
structure,  and  in  this  case  posts  of  square  or  rectangular  section  may 
be  used,  with  no  framing  except  the  bevels  and  the  mortises  for 


A 


^r 


J\J\ 


// 


K 


1 

Fig.  212.     Battered  Frame  Detail 


Fig.  213.     Method  of  Cutting  Foot  of 
Inclined  Post  by  Steel  Square 


the  girts.  If,  however,  the  frame  is  to  be  covered  in,  the  post 
must  be  backed  in  order  that  it  may  be  prepared  to  receive  the 
boarding. 

The  backing  consists  in  cutting  the  post  to  such  a  shape  that 
when  the  bevel  is  cut  at  the  foot,  the  section  cut  out  wall  be  similar 
to  that  shown  at  E  B  C  D  in  Fig.  212.  The  backed  post  must  then 
be  set  on  the  sills  so  that  the  point  E  will  come  at  the  corner  A. 
The  face  of  the  post  E  B  will  then  coincide  with  the  face  of  the  sill 
A  F.  The  post  should  be  backed  before  the  top  bevel  is  cut  because 
setting  it  back  the  distance  A  E  may  make  a  difference  in  the  required 
length  between  bevels. '  If  the  post  is  of  square  section  before  backing 
it  will  have,  after  backing,  a  peculiar  rhombus-shaped  section,  as 
is  shown  at  A  in  Fig.  212.  Here  H  I J  K  shows  the  original  square 
section,  and  L  I J  K  shows  the  section  after  backing.  These  sec- 
tions are  taken  square  across  the  post  perpendicular  to  the  edges. 


160 


CARPENTRY 


149 


Fig.  213  shows  how  the  foot  cut  for  the  inclined  post  may  be 
obtained  by  using  the  steel  square.  In  Fig.  211  it  will  be  seen  that 
the  post  A  slopes  toward  the  center  in  the  elevation  there  shown, 
and  it  likewise  slopes  toward  the  center  in  the  other  elevations, 
either  with  the  same  pitch  or  with  a  different  pitch.  The  result  of 
the  two  slopes  is  to  cause  the  post  to  slope  diagonally.  It  is  an  easy 
matter  to  find  the  pitch  in  each  elevation  since  it  depends  upon  the 
size  of  the  base  and  top,  and  the  height  between  them.  We  then 
have  the  two  pitches,  the  combination  of  which  gives  the  true  pitch 
diagonally;  they  can,  however,  be  treated  separately.  The  square 
may  be  applied  to  the  post,  as  shown  in  Fig.  213,  with  the  rise  on 
the  blade  and  the  run  on  the  tongue,  and  a  line  may  be  drawn  along 


!  /^ 


yv 


I  A 


yy 


B_ 


Fig.  214. 


Method  of  Finding  Amount   of   Backing 
for  Post 


the  tongue.  The  post  can  then  be  turned  over  and  the  pitch  shown 
in  the  other  elevation  may  be  laid  off  on  the  adjacent  side  in  the 
same  way,  with  the  rise  on  the  blade  and  the  run  on  the  tongue  of 
the  square.  Thus  a  continuous  line  A  B  C  D  may  be  drawn  around 
the  post  and  it  can  be  cut  to  this  line. 

Fig.  214  shows  how  the  amount  of  backing  necessary  in  any 
particular  case  may  be  determined.  Suppose  that  we  have  a  case 
where  the  plan  of  the  frame  is  not  square,  as  shown  in  Fig.  211,  but 
is  rectangular,  one  side  being  much  longer  than  the  other.  In  this 
case  the  diagonal  of  the  frame  formed  by  the  sills  will  not  coincide 
with  the  diagonal  section  of  the  post.  Fig.  214  shows  at  A  a,  plan 
of  the  post  as  it  would  appear  if  it  were  set  up  with  one  edge  per- 
pendicular to  the  sill  M,  after  the  bottom  bevel  is  cut.  To  cut  the 
backing,  lay  the  steel  square  along  the  side  of  the  post  parallel  to 


161 


150 


CARPENTRY 


M,  and  so  as  to  coincide  with  the  opposite  corner  0.  When  the 
triangular  piece  R  S  0  is  cut  away,  the  backing  is  complete.  At  B 
is  a  plan  where  the  post  is  set  with  corners  T  T,  so  as  to  coincide 
with  the  outside  edges  of  the  plate.  To  back  the  post  in  this  position, 
place  the  square  so  as  to  coincide  with  the  points  T  T,  making  the 
distance  C  T  and  C  T  proportional  to  the  lengths  of  the  sills  M  and 
N.  In  this  case,  the  backing  consists  in  cutting  away  the  area 
STCT. 

Trussed  Partitions.  It  is  very  often  necessary  to  construct 
a  partition  in  some  story  of  a  building  above  the  first  and  in  such  a 
position  that  there  can  be  no  support  beneath  it  such  as  another 


=15 — . — = —     ■^- 

Fig.  215.     One  Form  of  Trussed  Partition 


partition.  In  this  case  the  partition  must  be  made  self-supporting 
in  some  way.  The  usual  method  is  to  build  what  is  known  as  a 
"trussed  partition."  This  consists  of  a  timber  truss,  light  or  heavy 
according  as  the  distance  to  be  spanned  is  small  or  large,  which  is 
built  into  the  partition  and  covered  over  with  lathing  and  plaster- 
ing or  with  sheathing. 

Figs.  215  and  216  show  two  forms  of  trussed  partitions  which 
are  in  common  use.  The  one  shown  in  Fig.  215  may  be  employed 
for  a  solid  partition,  or  a  partition  with  a  door  opening  in  the  middle, 
while  the  one  shown  in  Fig.  216  is  applicable  where  the  wall  must 
be  pierced  by  door  openings  in  the  sides.     The  truss  must  be  so 


162 


CARPENTRY 


151 


designed  that  it  will  occupy  as  little  space  as  possible  in  a  lateral 
direction,  so  that  the  partition  need  not  be  abnormally  thick.  If 
possible,  it  is  best  to  make  the  truss  so  that  it  will  go  into  a  4-inch 
partition,  but  if  necessary  5-  or  6-inch  studding  may  be  used  and 
the  truss  members  may  be  increased  in  size  accordingly.  The  faces 
of  the  truss  members  should  be  flush  with  the  faces  of  the  partition 
studding  so  as  to  receive  lathing  or  sheathing. 

The  size  of  the  truss  members  depends  entirely  upon  the  weight 
which  the  partition  is  called  upon  to  carry.  Besides  its  own  weight, 
a  partition  is  often  called  upon  to  carry  one  end  of  a  set  of  floor  joists 


Fig.  216.     Another  Form  of  Trussed  Partition 


and  sometimes  it  supports  columns  which  receive  the  whole  weight 
of  a  story  above.  In  any  case,  the  pieces  must  be  very  strongly 
framed  or  spiked  together,  and  sound  material  free  from  shakes  and 
knot  holes  must  be  used.  *• 

In  Fig.  217  is  shown  another  form  of  trussed  partition  spanning 
the  space  between  two  masonry  walls.  As  will  be  seen  this  partition 
is  constructed  in  a  slightly  different  way  from  the  others  illustrated 
and  described  above.  At  the  two  sides  of  the  opening,  which  is  in 
this  case  in  the  center  of  the  partition,  are  two  uprights  which  are 


163 


152 


CARPENTRY 


made  considerably  heavier  and  stronger  than  the  ordinary  studding 
of  which  the  frame  of  the  partition  is  composed.  In  the  figure,  the 
opening  is  marked  A,  and  the  uprights  at  the  sides  of  the  opening 
are  marked  B  B.  In  the  upright  pieces  shoulders  are  formed,  as 
shown  at  C  in  the  figure,  and  into  the  shoulders  are  fitted  braces 
which  go  diagonally  across  the  partition  to  the  lower  corners  near 
the  wall  where  they  are  notched  into  the  lowest  member  of  the 
trussed  frame.  These  diagonal  pieces  are  marked  D  in  the  figure, 
and  the  lowest  member  of  the  frame  is  marked  E.    The  piece  E 


Fig.  217.     Trussed  Partition  Spanning  Space  between  Two  Brick  Walls 

goes  across  from  wall  to  wall  and  should  run  well  into  each  wall  as 
shown,  so  as  to  obtain  a  good  bearing  on  the  masonry  and  there 
should  be  a  bearing  plate  or  template  of  some  kind  under  each  end 
of  it,  as  shown  in  the  figure  at  the  points  F,  to  distribute  the  weight 
of  the  partition  over  a  large  surface  of  the  masonry.  For  this  pur- 
pose a  thin  iron  plate  will  answer  very  well,  or  a  large  flat  stone 
may  be  used.  The  piece  E  strengthens  the  floor  construction  and 
helps  support  the  partition;  the  joists  G  rest  on  top  of  the  piece  E, 
or  are  notched  over  it,  and  the  flooring  H  rests  on  these  joists. 


164 


CARPENTRY 


153 


Above  the  door  opening  A  there  are  two  diagonal  pieces  I 
which  come  together  at  the  top  of  the  partition,  forming  a  small 
truss  over  the  opening  and  completing  the  trussing  of  the  partition. 
The  diagonal  pieces  /  meet  the  uprights  on  each  side  of  the  door 
opening  at  the  point  where  the  horizontal  piece  M  meets  the  uprights, 
and  they  should  be  notched  into  either  one  or  the  other  or  both. 
The  topmost  member  of  the  trussed  partition  frame  is  marked  0  in 
the  figure,  and  on  top  of  it  rest  the  joists  of  the  floor  above,  which 
either  rest  directly  on  it  or  are  notched  over  it  according  to  circum- 
stances. These  joists  are  marked  P  in  the  figure.  They  support  the 
flooring  R  of  the  floor  above  the  partition.  The  main  members  of 
the  partition  frame  are  filled  in  with  ordinary  studding,  2X4  inches 
or  2X3  inches,  spaced  1  foot  or  16  inches  apart.  These  studs  are 
marked  ^S  in  the  figure. 

Inclined  and  Bowled  Floors.  In  any  large  room  which  is  to 
be  used  as  a  lecture  hall  the  floor  should  not  be  perfectly  level 


Fig.  218.     Building  an  Inclined  Floor 

throughout,  but  should  be  so  constructed  as  to  be  higher  at  the  back 
end  of  the  room  thar  it  is  at  the  front.  The  fall  of  such  a  floor  from 
back  to  front  should  be  not  more  than  f  of  an  inch  in  1  foot,  and  a 
fall  of  ^  an  inch  in  1  foot  is  much  better.  If  the  floor  has  a  greater 
slope  than  this  it  becomes  very  noticeable  when  anyone  attempts 
to  walk  over  it. 

The  simplest  way  to  arrange  for  the  slope  is  to  construct  what 
is  known  as  an  "inclined"  floor,  which  rises  steadily  from  front  to 
back,  so  that  a  line  drawn  across  it  from  side  to  side,  parallel  to  the 
front  or  rear  wall  of  the  room,  will  be  level  from  end  to  end.  There 
are  two  methods  of  building  an  inclined  floor,  the  difference  between 
them  being  in  the  arrangement  of  the  girders  and  floor  joists.  The 
two  methods  are  shown  in  Figs.  218  and  219. 


165 


154 


CARPENTRY 


Fig.  218  shows  the  arrangement  when  it  is  necessary  to  have 
the  girders  run  from  the  back  to  the  front  of  the  room,  parallel  to 
the  slope  of  the  floor.  In  this  case  the  girders  A  are  set  up  on  an 
incline  and  the  joists  B  resting  on  top  of  them  are  level  from  end 
to  end.  Each  line  of  joists  is  at  a  different  elevation  from  the  Hues 
of  joists  on  each  side  of  it.  The  floor  laid  on  top  of  the  joists  will 
then  have  the  required  inclination.  The  slope  of  the  girders  must 
be  the  same  as  the  slope  required  for  the  finished  floor. 

Fig.  219  shows  the  arrangement  when  it  is  desired  that  the 
girder  shall  run  from  side  to  side  of  the  room,  at  right  angles  in  the 
direction  of  the  slope  of  the  floor.  The  joists  A  will  then  be  parallel 
to  the  direction  of  the  slope,  and  are  inclined  to  the  horizontal, 
while  the  girders  B  are  level  from  end  to  end.    Each  line  of  girders 


Fig.  219.     Building  Inclined  Floor  When  Girders  Run  at  Right  Angles  of  Slope' 

is  at  a  different  elevation  from  every  other  fine  of  girders,  and  these 
elevations  must  be  so  adjusted  that  the  joists  resting  on  top  of  the 
girders  will  slope  steadily  from  end  to  end. 

When  a  simple  inclined  floor  is  employed,  the  seats  must  be 
arranged  in  straight  rows,  extending  across  the  room  from  side  to 
side,  so  that  each  fine  of  seats  may  be  level  from  end  to  end.  This 
arrangement  is  not  always  desirable,  however,  and  it  is  often  much 
better  to  have  the  seats  arranged  in  rings  facing  the  speaker's 
platform.  In  this  case  a  bowled  floor  must  be  built.  A  bowled  floor 
is  so  constructed  that  an  arc,  drawn  on  the  floor  from  a  center  in 
the  front  of  the  room,  on  or  near  the  speaker's  platform,  will  be 
perfectly  level  throughout  its  length.  This  means  that  the  floor 
must  pitch  upward  in  all  directions  from  the  speaker's  platform,  or, 
in  other  words,  it  must  be  bowled.  There  are  two  methods  of 
constructing  a  floor  of  this  kind.  The  simplest  way  is  to  build  first 
an  ordinary  inclined  floor,  which  slopes  from  the  front  to  the  back 


166 


CARPENTRY 


155 


of  the  room,  and  then  to  build  up  the  bowled  floor  with  furring 
pieces.  This  method  should  always  be  followed  when  it  is  necessary 
to  keep  the  space  beneath  the  lecture  hall  free  from  posts  or  columns. 
The  second  method  is  to  arrange  girders,  as  shown  in  the  framing 
plan  of  a  bowled  floor  in  Fig.  220»  These  girders  A  are  tangent  to 
concentric  circles  which  have  their  center  at  the  speaker's  platform, 
and  each  line  of  girders  is  at  a  different  elevation.  The  elevations  of 
the  different  lines  of  girders  are  so  adjusted  that  the  floor  joists  B 


Fig.  220.    Framing  Plan  of  a  Bowled  Floor  Showing  Arrangement  of  Girders 

which  rest  on  them,  will  slope  steadily  upward  as  they  recede  from 
the  platform.  The  girders  may  be  supported  on  posts  beneath  the 
floor  of  the  hall,  and  if  the  space  under  the  floor  is  not  to  be  used 
for  another  room,  this  is  a  very  good  method  to  employ. 

Immediately  around  the  platform  there  will  be  a  space  D,  the 
floor  of  which  will  be  level,  and  the  slope  will  start  several  feet  away 
from  the  platform. 

If  the  floor  is  framed  in  this  way  it  means  that  there  will  have 
to  be  a  large  number  of  posts  in  the  space  immediately  beneath  the 
floor,  so  many  in  fact  as  to  make  it  practicafly  impossible  to  make 


167 


156 


CARPENTRY 


use  of  this  space  for  another  purpose.  It  would  be  necessary  to  put 
a  post  at  each  intersection  of  the  girders  which  are  arranged  in 
concentric  rings  about  the  speaker's  platform,  so  that  the  posts  in 


Fig.  221.     Framing  Plan  for  Bowled  Floor  of  Longer  Type  than  Fig.  220 

the  space  below  would  also  appear  in  rings  parallel  to  each  other 
and  only  a  comparatively  small  distance  apart.  It  is  not  possible 
to  do  away  with  absolutely  all  of  these  posts  except  as  explained 


168 


CARPENTRY  157 

above,  by  building  up  on  top  of  a  plain  inclined  floor  surface,  but 
it  is  possible  to  do  away  with  a  large  number  of  them  if  necessary, 
as  will  be  explained.  In  Fig.  221  suppose  that  the  space  marked  F 
is  the  flat  space  at  the  front  of  the  room  which  we  wish  to  floor 
with  a  bowled  floor.  We  can  place  posts  around  this  space  under 
the  floor  as  shown  at  the  points  marked  A,  and  some  more  posts 
farther  back  from  the  front  as  shown  at  the  points  marked  B. 
Between  each  set  of  points  marked  A  and  B  we  can  run  girders, 
resting  at  the  front  end  on  the  post  A,  and  at  the  other  end  on  the 
post  B.  Other  girders  can  be  run  from  the  posts  A  to  the  wall  as, 
for  example,  the  girder  A  C;  and  others  again  may  be  run  from  the 
points  B  to  the  walls  as,  for  example,  the  girders  B  D.  These  girders 
can  all  be  inclined  so  as  to  slope  evenly  toward  the  front  from  all 
directions,  so  that  points  on  all  the  girders  at  a  given  distance  from 
the  center  of  the  room  at  the  front  wall  will  be  at  the  same  level. 
The  framing  formed  by  the  girders  may  now  be  filled  in  by  joisting  E, 
and  the  flooring  laid  on  top  of  the  joisting  so  as  to  form  a  solid  floor 
surface  on  which  the  seats  may  be  placed.  The  floor  surface  thus 
formed  will  slope  towards  a  point  in  the  center  of  the  front  wall 
and  all  the  seats  will  face  the  platform  in  concentric  rings,  each  ring 
being  "level  from  end  to  end.  In  the  space  beneath  the  floor  there 
will  be  only  a  comparatively  small  number  of  posts,  arranged  in  such 
a  way  that  the  space  can  be  utilized  for  rooms  if  desired.  All  the 
posts  marked  B  will  be  in  a  straight  line  and  can  be  covered  by  a 
partition,  so  that  only  the  posts  marked  A  will  be  troublesome,  and 
these  are  clustered  together  at  the  front  where  they  can  be  easily 
concealed.  The  room  shown  in  Fig.  221  has  been  purposely  made 
somewhat  different  from  the  room  shown  in  Fig.  220.  In  Fig.  221 
the  room  shown  is  longer  than  it  is  wide  while  in  Fig.  220  the  room 
shown  is  wider  than  it  is  long.  This  gives  rise  to  a  slight  difference 
in  the  appearance  of  the  framing,  but  the  principle  is  the  same  in 
both  cases,  and  the  two  methods  of  procedure  apply  equally  well  to 
both  rooms. 

Heavy  Beams  and  Girders.  For  ordinary  framed  buildings 
there  will  be  no  difficulty  in  obtaining  timbers  large  enough  for 
every  purpose,  but  in  large  structures,  or  in  any  building  where 
heavy  loads  must  be  carried,  it  is  often  impossible  to  get  a  single 
piece  which  is  strong  enough  to  do  the  work.    In  this  case  it  becomes 


160 


158 


CARPENTRY 


Fig.  222. 


Cutting  Girders  to  Fit 
Steel  Beams 


necessary  to  use  either  a  steel  beam  or  a  trussed  girder  of  wood,  or 
to  build  up  a  compound  wood  girder  out  of  a  number  of  single 
pieces,  fastened  together  in  such  a  way  that  they  will  act  like  a 
single  piece. 

Steel  beams  are  very  often  employed  for  girders  when  a  single 
timber  will  not  suffice,  and  although  they  are  expensive,  the  saving 

in  labor  helps  to  offset  the  extra  cost  of 
the  material. 

Wherever  wood  joists  or  girders  come 
in  contact  with  a  steel  beam  they  must  bt 
cut  to  fit  against  it.  The  steel  shape  most 
commonly  employed  is  the  I-beam  and 
the  wood  members  must  be  cut  at  the 
ends  so  as  to  fit  between  its  flanges.  This 
is  shown  in  Fig.  222.  The  joist  B  is  sup- 
ported on  the  lower  flange  of  the  I-beam  C 
and  the  strap  A  prevents  it  from  falling  away  from  the  steel  member. 
The  strap  is  bolted  or  spiked  to  the  wood  beam  and  is  bent  over 
the  top  flange  of  the  steel  beam  as  shown.  'If  two  wood  beams 
frame  into  the  steel  beam  opposite  each  other,  a  straight  strap  may 
be  used  passing  over  the  top  of  the  steel  beam  and  fastened  to  both 
the  wood  beams,  thus  holding  them  together.  If  a  better  support 
is  desired  for  the  end  of  the  wood  beam,  an  angle  may  be  riveted 
to  the  web  of  the  steel  I-beam,  as  shown  in  Fig.  223,  and  the  end  of 

the  wood  joist  may  be  sup- 
ported on  the  angle.  This  is 
an  expensive  detail,  however, 
and  it  is  seldom  necessary. 

If  a  timber  is  not  strong 
enough  to  carry  its  load,  and 
if  it  is  not  desirable  to  replace 
it  with  a  steel  beam,  it  may 
be  strengthened  by  trussing. 
There  are  two  methods  of  trussing  beams:  by  the  addition  of 
compression  members  above  the  beam,  and  by  the  addition  of  ten- 
sion members  below  it.  The  first  method  should  be  employed  when- 
ever, for  any  reason,  it  is  desired  that  there  be  no  projection  below 
the  bottom  of  the  beam  itself.     The  second  method  is  the  one  most 


Fig.  223.  Fitting  Girders  to  Steel  Beams  by  Means 
of  Angles 


170 


CARPENTRY 


159 


commonly  used,  especially  in  warehouses,  stables,  and  other  build- 
ings where  the  appearance  is  not  an  important  consideration. 

In  Fig.  224  is  shown  a  beam  which  is  trussed  by  the  first  method 
with  compression  pieces  A  above  the  beam.     All  the  parts  are  of 


Fig.  224.     Trussing  a  Girder  by  Use  of  Compression  Members 

wood  excepting  the  rods  B,  which  may  be  of  wrought  iron  or  steel. 
The  beam  itself  is  best  made  in  two  parts  E  E  placed  side  by  side, 
as  shown  in  the  section  at  A.  This  section  is  taken  on  the  line  C  D. 
The  depth  of  the  girder  may  be  varied  to  suit  the  conditions  of  each 


\  T ^ 
\  r^ 

SECT/ON  £-F  'r 

Fig.  225.     Trussing  Girder  by  Use  of  Tension  Member — King-Post  Trussed  Beam 

case.  In  general  the  deeper  it  is  made  the  stronger  it  becomes,  pro- 
vided that  the  joists  are  made  sufficiently  strong.  Usually  girders 
of  this  kind  are  made  shallow  enough  so  that  the  compression  mem- 
ber will  be  contained  in  the  thickness  of  the  floor  and  will  not  pro- 


SECTION  EF 

Fig.  226.     Trussed  Girder  with  Two  Struts — Queen-Post  Trussed  Beam 

ject  above  it.  A  slight  projection  below  the  ceiling  is  not  a  serious 
disadvantage.  The  floor  joists  F  may  be  supported  on  the  pieces  E, 
as  shown  at  A. 

In  Figs.  225  and  226  are  shown  examples  of  girders  which  are 
trussed  by  the  second  method  with  tension  rods  D  below  beam. 
These  rods  are  of  wrought  iron  or  steel,  and  the  struts  A  are  of  cast 


171 


160 


CARPENTRY 


iron.  The  struts  may  be  made  of  wood  if  they  are  short,  or  if  the 
loads  to  be  carried  are  not  heavy.  Sometimes  the  girders  are  made 
very  shallow  and  the  struts  A  are  then  merely  wood  blocks  placed 
between  the  beams  C  and  the  rod  D  to  keep  them  apart.  The  girder 
shown  in  Fig.  225  is  known  as  a  king-post  trussed  beam,  while  the 
one  shown  in  Fig.  226,  with  two  struts  instead  of  one,  is  known  as 
a  queen-post  trussed  beam.  The  beam  itself,  C,  may  be  made  in 
two  or  three  pieces  side  by  side  with  the  rods  and  the  struts  fitting  in 
between  them,  or  it  may  be  a  single  piece,  and  the  rods  may  be  made 
in  pairs,  passing  one  on  each  side  of  the  beam.  The  struts  bear  against 
the  bottom  of  the  beam,  being  fastened  to  it  by  bolts  or  spikes,  as 
shown  in  the  illustrations,  so  that  they  will  not  slip  sidewise. 

It  sometimes  happens  that  a  heavy  girder  is  required  in  a  situa- 
tion where  trussing  can  not  be  resorted  to,  and  where  steel  beams 


Fig.  227.     Construction  of  Compound  Beam 


Fig.    228.   Flitch-Plate    Girder 


can  not  be  readily  obtained.  In  this  case  the  only  resource  is  to 
build  up  a  compound  beam  from  two  or  more  single  pieces.  A  girder 
of  this  kind  can  be  constructed  without  much  difficulty,  and  can  be 
so  put  together  as  to  be  able  to  carry  from  eighty  to  ninety  per  cent 
of  the  load  which  a  solid  piece  of  the  same  dimensions  will  bear. 
There  are  many  ways  of  combining  the  single  timbers  to  form 
compound  beams,  some  of  the  most  common  of  which  will  be 
described. 

The  most  simple  combination  is  that  shown  in  Fig.  227.  The 
two  single  timbers  are  bolted  together  side  by  side,  with  sometimes 
a  small  space  between  them.  The  bolts  should  be  spaced  about  2 
feet  apart  and  staggered  as  shown,  so  that  two  will  not  come  side 
by  side.  Usually  bolts  three-quarters  of  an  inch  in  diameter  are 
used. 

In  Fig.  228  is  shown  a  modification  of  this  girder  known  as  a 
"flitch-plate"  girder.  It  has  a  plate  of  wrought  iron  or  steel,  inserted 
between  the  two  timbers,  and  the  whole  is  held  firmly  together  by 
bolts.    The  size  of  the  plate  should  be  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the 


172 


CARPENTRY 


161 


Action  of  Compound  Girder 
Under  Tension 


timbers,  so  as  to  make  the  most  economical  combination.  In  general 
the  thickness  of  the  iron  plate  should  be  about  one-twelfth  of  the 
combined  thickness  of  the  tim- 
bers. 

If  we  have  two  pieces  of 
timber  out  of  which  we  wish  to 
make  a  compound  girder,  it  is  Fig.  229. 
always  possible  to  get  a  stronger 
combination  by  placing  them  one  on  top  of  the  other,  than  by  placing 
them  side  by  side.  This  is  because  the  strength  of  a  beam  varies  as 
the  square  of  its  depth,  but  only  directly  as  its  width.  For  this  reason 
most  compound  girders  are  composed  of  single  pieces  placed  one 
above  the  other.  The  tendency  is  for  each  piece  to  bend  independ- 
ently, and  for  the  two  parts  to  slide  by  each  other,  as  shown  in  Fig. 
229.  This  tendency  must  be  overcome  and  the  parts  so  fastened 
together  that  they  will  act  like  a  single  piece.  There  are  several 
methods  in  common  use  by  which  this  object  is  accomplished. 

Fig.  230  shows  the  most  common  method  of  building  up  a  com- 
pound girder.  The  timbers  are  placed  together,  as  shown,  and 
narrow  strips  of  wood,  are  nailed  firmly  to  both  parts.  The  strips 
are  placed  close  against  each  other  and  have  a  slope  of  about  forty- 
five  degrees,  sloping  in  opposite  directions,  however,  on  opposite 
sides  of  the  girder.  It  has  been  claimed  that  a  built-up  girder  of 
this  kind  has  strength  ninety-five  per  cent  as  great  as  the  strength 
of  a  solid  piece  of  the  same  size  but  it  is  very  doubtful  whether  this 
is  true  in  most  cases.  Actual  tests  seem  to  indicate  that  such  girders 
have  an  efficiency  of  only  about  seventy-five  per  cent.  They  usually 
fail  by  the  splitting  of  the  side  strips,  or  the  pulling  out  and  bending 
of  the  nails,  but  seldom  by  the  breaking  of  the  main  pieces.  It  is, 
therefore,    essential    that   the 


strips  should  be  very  securely 

nailed    to   each   of   the  parts 

which  make    up    the    girder, 

and  that  they  should  also  be 

carefully  selected  so  that  only 

those  pieces  which  are  free  from  all  defects  may  be  used.     These 

girders  are  liable  to  considerable  deflection,  and  should  not  be  used  in 

situations  where  such  deflection  would  be  harmful. 


Fig.    230. 


Method  of  Building  up  Com- 
pound Girder 


173 


162 


CARPENTRY 


In  Fig.  231  is  shown  another  form  of  girder  with  the  parts 
notched,  as  shown,  so  as  to  lock  together.  This  prevents  them  from 
shpping  by  each  other.  BoHs  are  employed  to  hold  the  parts  together, 
so  that  the  surfaces  will  always  be  in  close  contact.  While  this  form 
of  girder  is  very  easily  constructed,  it  has  many  disadvantages. 
A  great  deal  of  timber  is  wasted  in  cutting  out  the  notches,  as  these 
must  be  deep  enough  to  prevent  crushing  of  the  wood  at  the  bearing 
surfaces,  and  thus  the  full  strength  of  the  timbers  is  not  utilized. 
Moreover,  it  is  apt  to  deflect  a  good  deal,  and  its  efficiency  is  not  so 
great  as  that  of  other  forms.  On  the  whole  it  is  inferior  to  the  form 
previously  described. 

The  compound  beam  which  is  almost  universally  considered 
the  best  is  that  shown  in  Fig.  232.  This  is  known  as  a  keyed  beam, 
its  characteristic  feature  being  the  use  of  keys  to  keep  the  parts 
from  sliding  on  each  other.  The  strength  of  a  keyed  beam  has  been 
found  by  actual  experiment  to  be  nearly  ninety-five  per  cent  of  the 


!^ 


Fig.  231.     Compound  Girder  with  Notched 
Surfaces 


-&^ ' o- 

Fig.  232.     Example  of  Keyed  Beam 


strength  of  the  solid  timber,  while  the  deflection  when  oak  keys 
were  used  was  only  about  one-quarter  more  than  the  deflection  of 
the  solid  beam.  By  using  keys  of  cast  iron  instead  of  wood  this 
excess  of  deflection  in  the  built-up  girder  can  be  reduced  to  a  very 
small  percentage.  The  keys  should  be  made  in  two  parts,  each 
shaped  like  a  wedge,  as  explained  in  connection  with  the  keys  for 
tension  splices,  and  should  be  driven  from  opposite  sides  into  the 
holes  made  to  receive  them,  so  as  to  fit  tightly.  They  should  be 
spaced  from  8  to  16  inches  apart,  center  to  center,  according  to  the 
size  of  the  timbers,  and  should  be  spaced  more  closely  near  the  ends 
of  the  beam  than  near  the  middle.  In  the  center  of  the  span  there 
should  be  left  a  space  of  4  or  5  feet  without  any  keys. 

Balconies  and  Galleries.  In  churches  and  lecture  halls  it  is 
almost  always  customary  to  have  one  or  more  balconies  or  galleries, 
extending  sometimes  around  three  sides  of  the  main  auditorium. 


174 


CARPENTRY 


lb3 


but  more  often  in  the  rear  of  the  room  only.  These  galleries  are 
supported  by  the  wall  at  the  back  and  by  posts  or  columns  in  front, 
and  the  framing  for  them  is  usually  a  simple  matter. 

Fig.  233  shows  a  sectional  view  of  a  gallery  frame,  as  they  are 
commonly  constructed.  There  is  a  girder  A  in  front,  which  rests 
on  top  of  the  columns  T,  and  supports  the  lower  ends  of  the  joists  B, 
forming  the  gallery  floor.  The  size  of  these  pieces  will  depend  upon 
the  dimensions  of  the  gallery,  the  spacing  of  the  columns  which 
support  the  girders  in  front,  and  various  other  considerations. 
Usually  posts  2X 10  or  3X 12,  and  girders  8X 10  or  lOX  12  will  be 
found  to  be  sufficiently  strong.  The  joists  should  be  spaced  from 
14  to  20  inches,  center  to  center.    Very  often  cast-iron  columns  are 


Fig.  233.     Sectional  View  of  Gallery  Framing 

employed  to  support  the  girders.  At  the  top,  where  the  joists  rest 
on  the  wall,  they  should  be  cut,  as  shown  in  the  figure,  so  that  they 
may  have  a  horizontal  bearing  on  the  masonry,  and  at  least  every 
second  joist  must  be  securely  anchored  to  the  wall,  as  is  the  one 
shown.  Usually  galleries  are  made  with  straight  fronts,  but  if  it  is 
desired  that  the  seats  should  be  arranged  in  concentric  rings,  all 
facing  the  speaker,  the  joists  may  be  placed  so  as  to  radiate  from  the 
center  from  which  the  seats  are  to  be  laid  out. 

The  seats  are  arranged  in  steps,  one  above  the  other,  and  the 
framing  for  the  steps  must  be  built  up  on  top  of  the  joists,  as  shown 
in  the  figure.  Horizontal  pieces  C,  usually  2X4  or  3X4  in  size,  are 
nailed  to  the  joists  at  one  end,  and  at  the  other  end  they  are  supported 
by  upright  pieces  D.  The  uprights  are  either  2X4  pieces  resting 
on  top  of  the  joists,  or  strips  of  board,  1  inch  to  1|  inches  thick,  which 


175 


164 


CARPENTRY 


are  nailed  to  the  sides  of  the  joists  and  to  the  sides  of  the  horizontal 
pieces.  Both  methods  are  shown  in  the  figure.  If  boards  are  used, 
they  should  be  placed  on  both  sides  of  the  joists.  Great  care  should 
be  taken  to  see  that  the  horizontal  pieces  are  truly  horizontal. 

Balconies  and  galleries  almost  always  project  a  considerable 
distance  beyond  the  line  of  columns  which  support  the  lower  ends 
of  the  joists.  This  projection  varies  from  3  feet  to  10  or  12  feet. 
If  the  overhang  is  not  more  than  5  feet,  it  can  be  supported  by  extend- 
ing the  joists  beyond  the  girder,  as  is  shown  in  Fig.  233.  A  strip  of 
board  E,  about  1|  inches  thick,  is  nailed  to  the  side  of  the  joist,  and 


Fig.  234.     Section  of  Gallery  Framing  with  Overhanging  Portion 


a  furring  piece  F  is  nailed  on  top  of  the  joist  at  its  lower  end  to  make 
it  horizontal.  The  railing  at  the  front  of  the  gallery  should  be  about 
2  feet  high,  and  may  be  framed  with  2X4  posts  G  having  a  cap  H 
of  the  same  size  on  top. 

If  the  overhang  of  a  gallery  is  more  than  5  feet  it  must  usually 
be  supported  by  a  brace,  as  shown  in  Fig.  234.  The  brace  A  may 
be  nailed  to  the  post  B  and  to  the  overhanging  joist  C,  or  framed 
into  these  pieces.  If  the  construction  is  very  light,  the  braces  may 
consist  of  strips  of  board  nailed  to  the  sides  of  the  joists,  but  in 
heavy  work  they  must  be  timbers  of  a  good  size,  well  framed  into 
both  the  post  and  the  joists.     The  braces  can  only  be  placed  at 


176 


CARPENTRY 


165 


points  where  there  are  posts,  and  to  support  the  ends  of  the  joists 
which  come  between  the  posts  there  must  be  a  girder  D,  running 
along  the  front  of  the  gallery  and  supported  by  the  braced  canti- 
levers at  the  points  where  posts  are  placed. 

The  forms  of  balconies  described  above  are  all  of  such  a  sort 
as  to  require  the  presence  of  posts  in  the  main  floor  below  the  bal- 
cony to  support  it,  but  it  very  often  happens  that  such  posts  are  very 
undesirable  and  must  be  avoided  if  it  is  possible  to  do  so.  In  this 
case  the  balcony  must  be  supported  from  above  in  some  way,  and 
the  method  most  commonly  employed  is  to  hang  the  outer  end  of 
the  main  timbers  from  the  ceiling  of  the  main  hall  or  room  of  which 
the  balcony  forms  a  part.     Hangers  made  of  round  or  square  iron 


.y-»j.^->-.,.^w  J.U.'J-.i 


O 


^r' 


J    / 


Fig,  235.     Details  of  Balcony  Construction  Showing  Hanger  Attached  to  Roof 

or  steel  rods  are  used,  and  these  are  fastened  at  the  upper  end  to 
some  member  of  the  floor  construction  of  the  floor  above,  or  to  some 
member  of  the  roof  construction  in  case  there  is  no  floor  above.  The 
most  common  arrangement  is  to  fasten  the  upper  end  of  the  hanger 
to  the  lower  chord  of  the  roof  truss. 

Fig.  235  shows  a  balcony  constructed  as  described  above.  One 
side  is  supported  by  the  masonry  wall  of  the  building,  marked  F  in 
the  figure,  and  the  other  side  is  hung  from  the  roof  or  ceiling  by 
means  of  the  hangers  marked  E.  At  L  is  shown  a  section  through 
the  balcony  from  the  wall  to  the  inside  edge,  while  at  M  is  shown  a 
view  looking  at  the  edge  of  the  balcony  from  the  inside  of  the  hall 
or  room  in  which  the  balcony  is  situated.  The  principal  support- 
ing members  of  the  construction  are  the  pieces  marked  A  which  run 
well  into  the  wall  so  as  to  obtain  a  sufficient  support  at  this  end. 


177 


166  CARPENTRY 

These  pieces  are  made  double  or  in  pairs,  as  shown  in  the  end  view 
M,  and  are  separated  a  Httle  so  as  to  allow  the  hanger  rod  to  pass 
between  the  two  pieces  as  shown.  E  is  the  hanger,  which  is  a  round 
or  a  square  rod  about  1  inch  in  diameter.  The  pieces  A  should 
continue  a  short  distance  beyond  the  point  where  the  rod  passes 
between  them,  and  the  ends  may  be  cut  to  any  shape  desired  in  order 
to  give  them  a  pleasing  appearance,  as  shown.  They  should  be 
spaced  7  or  8  feet  apart  and  on  top  of  them  may  be  placed  ordinary 
joists  of  small  size,  marked  B  in  the  figure,  which  are  spaced  about 
12  or  14  inches  apart.  On  top  of  the  joists  B  is  laid  a  rough  floor, 
marked  C  in  the  figure,  and  above  this  again  is  laid  the  finished  floor- 
ing of  the  balcony  D.  A  joist  should  be  placed  on  each  side  of  the 
hanger  E,  as  shown  at  N  and  0,  and  against  the  joist  marked  0 
should  be  nailed  the  finished  fascia  piece  G.  This  finished  piece  G 
should  run  up  past  the  under  boarding  C  and  stop  against  the  under 
side  of  the  finished  top  flooring  of  the  balcony.  There  should  be  a 
bed  molding  H  at  the  juncture  between  the  piece  G  and  the  top 
flooring  D,  so  as  to  cover  and  conceal  the  joint. 

The  hanger  E  should  pass  between  the  pieces  A,  and  should  be 
threaded  at  the  bottom  so  as  to  receive  a  nut  J  by  which  it  may  be 
tightened  up.  There  should  be  a  washer  I  consisting  of  a  square 
plate  of  iron,  between  the  nut  J  and  the  wood  of  the  pieces  A,  so 
the  wood  will  not  be  crushed  and  so  that  the  nut  will  not  sink  into 
the  wood. 

The  under  side  of  the  balcony  seen  from  the  floor  of  the  main 
hall  may  be  treated  in  any  one  of  a  variety  of  ways.  The  joists  may 
be  furred  and  lathed  and  plastered  on  the  under  side  so  that  a  plas- 
tered surface  will  be  presented,  or  the  under  side  of  the  joists  may 
be  covered  with  sheathing,  V-jointed  or  beaded,  or  the  joists  may  be 
more  carefully  chosen  and  left  exposed  to  view  from  below. 

TIMBER  TRUSSES 

In  the  discussion  of  roofs  and  roof  framing  which  has  already 
been  given  here,  only  those  roofs  have  been  considered  which  were 
of  so  short  a  span  that  they  could  easily  be  covered  with  a  frame- 
work of  ordinary  rafters,  spaced  from  1  to  2  feet  apart,  between 
centers,  but  it  is  very  often  necessary  to  build  roofs  of  larger  span, 
for  which  ordinary  rafters,  even  if  supported  by  dwarf  walls  and 


178 


CARPENTRY 


167 


collar  beams,  are  not  sufBciently  strong.     In  this  case  a  different 
method  of  framing  must  be  employed. 

Instead  of  a  number  of  rafters-  spaced  fairly  close  together,  and 
all  of  equal  strength,  we  will  have  a  few  heavy  "trusses,"  placed  at 
intervals  of  10  or  more  feet,  and  spanning  the  entire  distance  between 
the  two  side  walls.  On  top  of  the  trusses  are  laid  "purlins,"  running 
parallel  to  the  walls,  which  in  their  turn  support  the  common  rafters, 
running  perpendicular  to  the  side  walls,  as  in  the  case  of  simple 
rafters  in  an  ordinary  roof.     There  may  be  one  or  more  purlins  in 


r 

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--- 

... 

■-- 

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.... 

— 

.... 

.... 

; 

i 

=z 

zr 

— 

J 

= 

z= 

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=: 

= 

= 

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D 

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Fig.  236.     Roof  Plan  Showing  Use  of  Heavy  Trussed  Purlins  and  Common  Rafters 

each  slope  of  the  roof,  depending  upon  the  size  of  the  span,  since  the 
purlins  must  be  spaced  near  enough  together  so  that  a  small  rafter 
can  span  the  distance  between  them.  Usually  there  will  be  a  pur- 
Un  at  each  joint  of  the  truss  and  the  joints  will  be  determined  by  the 
safe  span  for  the  rafters. 

This  arrangement  is  shown  in  plan  in  Fig.  236,  in  which  A  are 
trusses,  B  are  the  purlins,  C  are  the  common  rafters,  and  D  is  the 
ridge. 

There  are  many  different  kinds  of  trusses  in  common  use  for 
various  kinds  of  buildings,  which  differ  from  each  other  chiefly  in 


179 


168 


CARPENTRY 


the  arrangement  of  the  tension  and  compression  pieces  of  which 
every  truss  is  built  up.  Some  trusses  are  built  entirely  of  timber, 
while  in  others  timber  is  employed  only  for  the  compression  pieces, 
and  wrought  iron  and  steel  for  the  tension  pieces. 

King=Post  Truss.  Fig.  237  shows  what  is  known  as  a  king-post 
truss.  Its  distinguishing  feature  is  the  member  A  called  a  king- 
post, B  are  the  purlins,  and  E  are  the  rafters  resting  on  them.  As 
will  be  seen  by  a  study  of  the  figure,  the  members  of  the  truss  are 
so  arranged  as  to  divide  it  up  into  a  series  of  triangles,  or  rather  into 
a  series  of  triangular  open  spaces,  bounded  by  the  various  members 
of  the  framework.  This  is  an  essential  characteristic  of  a  good  and 
efficient  truss.     Such  a  framework  may  fail  by  overloading  in  such 


Fig.  237.     Section  Showing  Design  of  King-Post  Truss 

a  way  as  to  be  crushed  or  broken,  but  it  can  not  be  distorted,  that 
is,  none  of  the  triangular  spaces  can  change  their  shape  without 
some  membei'  of  the  truss  being  either  lengthened  or  shortened, 
which  means  that  some  member  of  the  framework  must  fail  by  either 
tension  or  compression  before  the  truss  can  be  distorted,  or  can  fail 
to  carry  its  load  by  reason  of  the  failure  of  the  joints.  This  prin- 
ciple does  not  hold  true  for  a  framework  composed  of  spaces  in  the 
form  of  rectangles,  of  which  the  members  of  the  framework  form 
the  sides,  because  it  is  possible  for  a  rectangular  framework  to  become 
distorted  without  any  side  being  either  lengthened  or  shortened,  by 
the  simple  failure  of  some  of  the  joints  and  the  movement  of  the 
members  around  the  joints.     For  this  reason  the  first  thing  to  con- 


180 


CARPENTRY 


169 


sider  in  designing  a  truss  is  the  arrangement  of  the  members  and 
the  position  of  the  joints  so  all  of  the  open  spaces  will  be  in  the  form 
of  triangles. 

In  Fig.  237  are  shown  two  different  methods  of  placing  the  pur- 
lins.    As  will  be  readily  seen,  some  of  them  are  set  so  that  their 


Fig.   238.     Section  Showing  Design  of  King-Post  Truss  for  Wide  Span 

longer  dimension  in  cross  section  is  vertical,  while  others  are  set 
so  that  their  longer  dimension  is  at  right  angles  to  the  rafters.  Both 
of  these  methods  are  commonly  employed.  The  tension  members 
C  are  merely  for  the  support  of  the  lower  chord  or  tie-beam  D. 


Fig.  239.     Section  Showing  Design  of  Trussed  Roof  Using  Iron  Castings  at  Joints 

Fig.  238  shows  a  truss  of  the  same  general  form  as  the  one  shown 
in  Fig.  237,  but  of  larger  span.  This  truss  is  of  such  a  span  and  has 
its  joints  and  purlins  arranged  in  such  a  way  that  it  is  similar  to  the 
trusses  shown  in  plan  in  Fig.  236  and  there  marked  A.     In  this  truss 


181 


170 


CARPENTRY 


also  the  vertical  members  are  not  iron  rods,  as  in  Fig.  237,  but  are 
composed  of  timber.  The  stresses  in  these  members  are,  however, 
still  tension  stresses  just  the  same  as  in  Fig.  237,  and  for  this  reason 
it  is  a  common  practice  to  fasten  them  to  the  chords  of  the  truss  by 
means  of  iron  straps,  as  shown  at  the  points  marked  A  in  Fig.  238. 
In  other  respects  this  truss  is  constructed  in  a  manner  similar  to  that 
in  which  the  truss  shown  in  Fig.  237  is  built. 

Fig.  239  shows  a  truss  with  the  diagonal  members  running  in 
a  direction  opposite  to  that  in  which  run  the  diagonal  members  in 
the  two  trusses  previously  shown.  This  figure  also  illustrates  the 
practice  of  placing  an  iron  casting  at  each  joint  of  the  truss  to 
receive  the  members  which   come  together  at  that  joint.     This 


Fig.  240.     Section  Showing  Design  of  Queen-Post  Truss 

arrangement  is,  however,  an  expensive  one  on  account  of  the  cast- 
ings, and  it  is  doubtful  if  the  advantage  gained  by  the  use  of  them 
is  sufficient  to  warrant  the  additional  cost.  Usually  the  castings 
can  not  be  kept  in  stock  and  must  be  made  to  order  for  each  truss. 
Queen=Post  Truss.  Fig.  240  shows  a  modification  of  the  king- 
post truss,  which  is  called  the  queen-post  truss.  Here  there  are  two 
queen-posts  instead  of  the  single  king-post.  The  queen-post  truss 
is  somewhat  more  popular  in  building  work  than  is  the  king-post 
truss,  but  both  are  frequently  employed  in  halls,  warehouses,  and 
stables,  where  an  ornamental  truss  is  not  required,  and  also  in 
churches  and  audience  rooms,  where  they  are  to  be  concealed  by 
other  finish.     Fig.  240  also  shows  how  a  floor  or  ceiling  may  be 


182 


CARPENTRY 


171 


supported  on  the  lower  chord  or  tie-beam  of  the  truss.  The  joists  C 
are  hung  from  the  chord  by  means  of  stirrup  irons  or  patent  hangers. 
This  arrangement  makes  the  tie-beam  act  as  a  beam  as  well  as  a 
tie  and  in  this  case  it  must  be  made  sufficiently  strong  to  carry  the 
load  from  the  joists  without  sagging. 

The  queen-post  truss,  as  will  be  seen,  is  not  entirely  composed 
of  triangles,  the  center  panel  being  in  the  form  of  a  rectangle.  In 
most  cases  this  is  not  a  serious  disadvantage,  since,  when  the  truss 
is  uniformly  loaded,  as  it  would  be  if  it  were  an  ordinary  roof  truss, 
there  is  no  tendency  to  distort  the  center  panel.    It  is  almost  always 


Fig.  241.     Section  Showing  Design  of  a  Fink  Truss 

better,  however,  to  introduce  an  additional  diagonal  member  into 
this  panel  so  as  to  divide  it  into  two  triangles.  This  obviates  any 
danger  of  distortion  of  this  panel. 

Fink  Truss.  In  Fig.  241  is  shown  a  Fink  truss,  which  is  a 
very  popular  form,  especially  for  trusses  built  of  steel.  It  has 
neither  king-post  nor  queen-posts,  and  the  tie-beam  A  is  of  iron  or 
steel  instead  of  timber.  This  is  a  simple  and  cheap  form  of  truss 
for  any  situation  where  there  is  no  floor  or  ceiling  to  be  carried  by 
the  lower  chord.  The  struts  B  may  be  of  wood  or  of  cast  iron.  It 
will  be  seen  that  the  truss  consists  essentially  of  two  trussed  rafters 
set  up  against  each  other,  with  a  tie-rod  A  to  take  up  the  horizontal 
thrust. 

Open  Timber  Trusses.  Besides  the  forms  of  trusses  described 
above,  there  are  other  forms  which  are  used  in  churches  and  chapels. 


183 


172 


CARPENTRY 


as  well  as  in  halls  where  open  timber  work  is  required,  and  where 
the  trusses  will  not  be  concealed  by  other  finish,  but  will  be  made 

ornamental  in  themselves. 
Among  these  the  most  com- 
mon forms  are  the  so-called 
scissors  truss  and  the  ham- 
mer beam  truss. 

Scissors  Truss.  The 
scissors  truss  is  shown  in 
Fig.  242.  It  has  no  tie- 
beam  and,  therefore,  it  will 
exert  considerable  thrust  on 
the  walls  of  the  building, 
which  thrust  must  be  taken 
care  of  by  buttresses  built 
on  the  outside  of  the  walls.  This  is  perhaps  the  most  simple  form 
of  truss  which  can  be  used  when  an  open  timber  truss  is  required. 


Fig.  242.     Design  of  a  Scissors  Truss 


Fig.  243.     Hammer  Beam  Truss  Used  Particularly  for  Churches 

All  the  parts  are  of  wood.    If  desired,  an  iron  tie  rod  may  be 
inserted  between  the  two  wall  bearings  of  the  truss,  so  as  to  eUmi- 


184 


CARPENTRY 


173 


nate  the  thrust  on  the  walls,  and  this  rod  need  not  detract  seriously 
from  the  appearance  of  the  open  timber  work. 

Hammer  Beam  Truss.  A  very  popular  form  of  truss  for  use 
in  churches  is  the  hammer  beam  truss  mentioned  above.  This  is 
shown  in  Fig.  243.  On  the  left  is  shown  the  framework  for  the  truss, 
while  on  the  right  is  shown  the  w^ay  in  which  it  may  be  finished. 
Its  characteristic  feature  is  the  hammer  beam  A.  The  sizes  of  the 
pieces  can  only  be  determined  by  calculation  or  experience,  and 
depend  entirely  upon  the  span  of  the  truss  and  the  loads  to  be 
carried,  which  are  different  for  different  locations.  It  is  common 
practice  to  insert  a  tie  rod  between  the  points  B  and  C  to  take 
up  the  thrust  which  would  otherwise  come  on  the  walls.  All 
parts  of  the  framework  must  be  securely  bolted  or  spiked  together 
so  as  to  give  a  strong,  rigid  foundation  for  the  decoration,  which, 
should  be  regarded  merely  as  decoration  and  should  not  be  con- 
sidered as  strengthening  the  truss  in  any  way. 

Truss  Details.  There  are  several  methods  of  supporting  the 
purhns  on  wood  trusses,  but  the  method  illustrated  in  Fig.  244  is 
one  of  the  best  as  well  as  the  most 
frequently  employed.  A  block  of  wood 
A  is  set  up  against  the  lower  side  of 
the  purlin,  and  prevents  it  from  turn- 
ing about  the  corner  B,  which  it  has  a 
tendency  to  do.  The  block  is  set  into 
the  chord  of  the  truss  to  a  depth  suffi- 
cient to  keep  the  purlin  from  sliding 
downward  as  it  receives  the  weight 
from  the  rafters  E.  This  figure  also 
shows  the  most  simple  method  of  fram- 
ing a  strut  into  the  chord  of  a  truss. 
The  strut  C  is  set  into  the  chord  D  far 

enough  to  hold  the  strut  in  place.  If  it  is  perpendicular  to  the 
chord,  it  need  not  be  so  set  into  it,  if  the  pieces  are  well  nailed 
together,  because  in  this  case  there  is  no  tendency  for  the  strut  to 
slide  along  the  chord.  Care  should  be  taken  not  to  weaken  the 
chord  too  much  in  cutting  these  mortises. 

In  Fig.  245  are  shown  the  most  common  methods  of  forming 
the  joint  between  the  top  chord  and  the  tie-beam  of  a  truss.    The 


Fig.  244.     Method  of  Supporting 
the  Purhns  on  Wood  Trusses 


185 


174 


CARPENTRY 


connection  shown  at  A  depends  upon  the  bolts  for  its  strength, 
while  that  shown  at  B  depends  upon  the  wrought-iron  straps  E, 
which  are  bent  so  as  to  engage  notches  cut  in  the  tie-beam  F.  The 
piece  C  is  very  often  added  beneath  the  tie-beam,  at  the  bearing, 
to  strengthen  it  at  this  point,  where  the  beam  is  subject  to  consider- 
able bending  stress.  The  block  D  is  merely  for  filling  and  to  pro- 
tect the  bolts  where  they  pass  between  the  chord  and  the  tie-beam. 
It  may  be  omitted  in  many  cases.  The  plate  G  is  placed  between 
the  nuts  or  bolt  heads  and  the  wood  to  prevent  the  crushing  of  the 
latter.    Washers  should  be  used  with  all  bolts  for  this  purpose. 

Fig.  246  shows  how  the  joint  at  the  center  of  the  tie-beam  of  a 
king-post  truss,  or  any  joint  between  two  struts,  may  be  formed. 


Fig.  245.    Two  Methods  of  Forming  a  Joint  between  Both  Chord  and  Tie-Beam 

of  a  Truss 


The  tie-beam  is  shown  at  A,  and  B  are  the  struts.  The  blocks  C, 
set  between  the  struts,  receive  the  thrust  from  them.  They  should 
be  notched  into  the  tie-beam  A  deep  enough  to  take  care  of  any 
inequality  between  the  thrusts  from  the  two  struts,  which  have  a 
tendency  to  balance  each  other.  The  block  is  often  made  of  cast 
iron.  It  may  be  omitted  altogether,  in  which  case  the  struts  will 
come  close  together  and  bear  against  each  other.  The  rod  D  is 
the  king-post  which  supports  the  tie-beam  A  at  this  point.  It  is 
often  made  of  wood  and  sometimes  the  struts  B  are  framed  into  it 
instead  of  being  framed  into  the  tie-beam  A. 


186 


HALL  AND  PARTIALLY  ENCLOSED  STAIRCASE  IN  LONG  HALL,  GREYROCKS,  ROCKPORT,  MASS. 

Frank  Chouteau  Brown,  Architect,  Boston,  Mass. 
For  Plans  and  Exteriors,  See  Vol.  I,  Pages  273,  283,  and  399. 


HALL  AND  STAIRCASE  IN  HOUSE  AT  WOLLASTON,  MASS. 

Frank  Chouteau  Brown,  Architect 


CARPENTRY 


175 


Fig.  247  shows  a  form  of  connection  for  the  peak  of  a  truss, 
where  the  two  top  chords  or  principal  rafters  come  together.  The 
plate  A  acts  as  a  tie  to  keep  these  members  in  place,  as  does  the  bent 
plate  B,  also.  The  plate  B,  moreover,  prevents  the  crushing  of  the 
timber  by  the  nut  of  the  king-post  tie  rod.  The  purlin  C  supports 
the  rafters  and  is  hollowed  out  at  the  bottom  to  admit  the  nut  D. 
The  two  principal  rafters  bear  against  each  other  and  must  be  cut 
so  that  the  bearing  area  between  them  will  be  sufficient  to  prevent 
the  crushing  of  the  timber.  In  light  trusses  the  king-post  E  is  often 
made  of  wood  and  is  carried  up  between  the  principal  rafters  so 
that  these  members  bear  against  it  on  each  side.  If  this  construction 
is  adopted  it  must  be  remembered  that  the  post  is  a  tension  member, 
and  is  held  up  by  the  principal  rafters,  and  these  pieces  must  be 
mortised  into  it  in  such  a  way  as  to  accomplish  this  result. 


Fig.  246.     Method  of  Forming  Joint  at  Center 
of  Tie-Beam  in  King-Post  Truss 


Fig.  247.     Construction  of   the  Peak 
Connection  of  a  Truss 


There  are  a  great  many  different  ways  of  arranging  the  details 
for  wood  trusses,  each  case  usuall}^  requiring  details  peculiar  to 
itself  and  unlike  those  for  any  other  case.  There  are,  therefore,  no 
hard  and  fast  rules  which  can  be  laid  down  to  govern  the  design  of 
these  connections.  A  perfect  understanding  of  the  action  of  each 
piece  and  its  relation  to  all  of  the  other  pieces  is  necessary  in  order 
to  insure  an  economical  and  appropriate  design.  The  aim  should 
always  be  to  arrange  the  details  so  that  there  will  be  as  little  cutting 
of  the  pieces  as  possible,  and  so  that  the  stresses  may  pass  from  one 
piece  to  another  without  overstraining  any  part  of  the  truss. 

TOWERS  AND  STEEPLES 

Towers  are  a  very  common  feature  in  building  construction, 
ranging  in  size  from  the  small  cupola  used  on  barns  to  the  high 
tapering  spire  which  is  the  distinguishing  mark  of  churches. 


187 


176 


CARPENTRY 


They  have  roofs  of  various  shapes,  some  in  the  form  of  pyramids, 
with  four,  eight,  or  twelve  sides,  some  of  conical  form,  and  others 
bell-shaped  or  having  a  slightly  concave  surface. 

The  construction  of  all  these  forms  of  towers  is  much  the  same, 
consisting  of  an  arrangement  of  posts  and  braces,  which  becomes 
more  elaborate  as  the  tower  or  steeple  becomes  larger.  The  bracing 
is  the  most  important  consideration,  because  the  towers  will  be 

exposed  to  the  full  force  of  the 
wind  and  must  be  designed  to 
resist  great  strain. 

Cupola.  Fig.  248  shows  a 
section  through  the  frame  of  a 
simple  cupola.  It  has  posts  A 
at  each  corner,  which  rest  at 
the  bottom  on  the  sills  B. 
The  sills  are  supported  on 
extra  heavy  collar  beams  C, 
which  are  very  securely  spiked 
to  the  rafters  of  the  main 
roof  M.  The  corner  posts  ex- 
tend clear  up  to  the  main  plate 
D,  which  supports  the  rafters 
E  of  the  cupola.  There  are 
hip  rafters  at  the  corner  of 
the  roof,  which  bear  at  the  top 
against  a  piece  F  placed  in  the 
center  of  the  roof.  This  scant- 
ling extends  above  the  roof 
surface  far  enough  to  receive 
some  kind  of  metal  finial  which  forms  the  finish  at  the  extreme 
top  of  the  cupola;  and  at  the  bottom  it  is  firmly  fastened  to 
the  tie  G,  which  is  cut  in  between  the  plates.  The  braces  H 
stiffen  the  frames  against  the  wind.  Girts  I  are  cut  in  between  the 
corner  posts  and  form  the  top  and  bottom  of  the  slat  frame  opening 
R,  besides  tying  the  posts  together.  The  sides  of  the  opening  for 
the  slat  frame  are  formed  by  the  vertical  studs  A'.  The  rafters  of 
the  main  roof  M  are  placed  close  up  against  the  corner  posts  on  the 
outside,  and  the  posts  may  be  spiked  to  them.    The  pieces  0  are  of 


Fig.    248.    Section  Through  Frame  of  a  Simple 
Cupola 


188 


CARPENTRY 


177 


plank  2  inches  thick,  and  are  simply  furring  pieces  placed  at  intervals 
of  1 1  to  2  feet  all  around  the  cupola  to  give  the  desired  shape  to  the 
bottom  part.  The  size  of  the  pieces  will  depend  on  the  size  of  the 
cupola.  The  posts  may  be  4X4  inches  or  6X6  inches,  and  the 
braces,  girts,  and  intermediate  studding  may  be  3X4  inches  or  4X6 
inches. 

Miscellaneous  Towers.  Other  towers  are  framed  in  a  manner 
similar  to  that  described  for  a  cupola.  There  is  always  a  base  or 
drum,  with  posts  at  the  corners  and  with  the  walls  filled  in  with 
studding,  which  supports  a  plate  at  the  top.  The  rafters  forming 
the  tower  roof  rest  at  the  foot  on  this  plate,  and  at  the  top  they  bear 
against  a  piece  of  scantling 
which  is  carried  down  into 
the  body  of  the  tower  for  a 
considerable  distance  and  is 
there  fastened  to  a  tie  passing 
between  rafters  on  opposite 
sides.  This  is  shown  in  Fig. 
249.  The  tie  A  is  securely 
nailed  to  the  rafters  at  each 
end,  and  to  a  post  in  the  mid- 
dle. The  post  is  cut  so  as  to 
have  as  many  faces  as  the 
roof  has  sides,  four  for  a 
square  hip  roof,  eight  for  an 
octagon  roof,  and  so  on.  Each  face  receives  one  of  the  hip  rafters  and 
the  intermediate  rafters  are  framed  in  between  them.  If  the  roof  is 
conical  or  bell  shape,  as  shown  in  the  figure,  the  post  at  the  top  may 
be  cylindrical  in  form.  Although  the  roof  shown  is  bell  shaped  the 
rafters  are  not  cut  to  fit  the  curve.  They  are  made  straight  and  are 
filled  out  by  furring  pieces  B.  Pieces  of  plank  C  are  cut  in  between 
the^furring  pieces,  as  shown,  so  as  to  give  a  nailing  for  the  boarding, 
and  they  are  cut  to  the  shape  of  segments  of  circles,  so  as  to  form 
complete  circles  around  the  tower  when  they  have  been  put  in  place. 
If  a  tower  of  this  shape  is  to  be  built,  having  a  number  of  faces  and 
hips,  the  curve  of  the  hip  rafters  will  not  be  the  same  as  the  curve 
shown  by  a  section  through  one  of  the  faces  of  the  tower.  In  order 
to  find  the  true  curve  for  the  hip  rafter,  the  same  method  is  followed 


Fig.  249.     Section  Showing  Frame  Construction 
of  Small  Tower 


189 


178 


CARPENTRY 


as  was  explained  for  hip  rafters  in  an  ogee  roof  over  a  bay  window, 
using  the  principle  that  any  line  drawn  in  the  roof  surface  parallel 
to  the  plate  is  horizontal  throughout  its  length.  By  this  means  any 
number  of  points  in  the  curve  of  the  hip  rafter  may  be  obtained 
and  the  curve  for  the  hip  may  be  drawn  through  them.     Thus  a 

pattern  for  the  hip  rafter  may 
be  obtained. 

Church  Spire.  Fig.  250 
shows  the  method  of  framing 
a  church  spire,  or  other  high 
tapering  tower.  The  base  of 
the  drum  N  is  square  and  is 
supported  by  the  posts  A, 
one  at  each  corner,  which 
rest  on  the  sills  B.  The  sills 
are  supported  by  the  roof 
trusses  of  the  main  roof.  The 
corner  posts  extend  the  full 
height  of  the  drum  and  are 
strongly  braced  in  all  four 
faces,  with  intermediate  ver- 
tical studding  C  between 
them  to  form  the  framework 
for  these  faces.  The  spire 
itself  may  rest  on  top  of  this 
square  drum  or  there  may  be 
another  eight-  or  twelve-sided 
drum  constructed  on  the  top 
of  the  first  drum,  on  which 
the  spire  may  rest.  This  depends  upon  the  design  of  the  spire. 
The  hip  rafters  D  do  not  rest  directly  on  top  of  the  drum,  how- 
ever, as  this  arrangement  would  not  give  sufficient  anchorage  for 
the  spire.  They  are  made  so  as  to  pass  close  inside  the  plate  E 
at  the  top  of  the  drum  and  are  securely  bolted  to  this  plate  with 
strong  bolts.  This  is  shown  at  L,  which  is  a  plan  of  the  top  of 
the  drum,  showing  the  hip  rafters  in  place.  The  plate  is  shown 
at  E,  and  the  hip  rafters  at  D.  Tlie  rafters  extend  down  into  the 
body  of  the  drum  as  far  as  the  girts  H  (shown  in  the  elevation)  to 


Fig.  250. 


Section  Showing  Contruction  of 
Church  Spire 


190 


CARPENTRY 


179 


which  they  are  again  securely  spiked  or  bolted,  being  cut  out  at  the 
foot  so  as  to  fit  against  the  girt.  In  this  way  a  strong  anchorage  for 
the  spire  is  obtained. 

Horizontal  pieces  I  are  cut  in  between  the  hip  rafters  at  inter- 
vals throughout  the  height  of  the  spire,  braces  K,  halved  together 
at  the  center  where  they  cross  each  other,  are  firmly  nailed  to  the 
rafters  at  each  end.  These  braces  are  needed  only  in  lofty  spires, 
which  are  likely  to  be  exposed  to  high  winds.  At  the  top  the  hip  rafters 
bear  against  a  post  M,  the  same  as  in  the  other  towers.  If  a  conical 
spire  is  called  for  in  the  design,  the  horizontal  pieces  I  must  be  cut 


Fig.  251.     Section  Showing  Frame  Construction  of  a  Dome 

to  the  shape  of  segments  of  circles,  and  in  this  case  the  rafters  are 
no  longer  hip  rafters.  The  horizontal  pieces  /  will  receive  the 
boarding,  which  will  form  a  smooth  conical  surface. 

The  spire  above  the  drum  is  usually  framed  on  the  ground 
before  being  raised  to  its  final  position.  It  then  may  be  raised  part 
way  and  supported  by  temporary  staging  while  the  top  is  finished 
and  painted,  after  which  it  may  be  placed  in  position  on  the  top  of 
the  drum. 

Domes.  Timber  domes  have  been  built  over  many  famous 
buildings,  among  which  may  be  mentioned  St.  Paul's  Cathedral  at 
London,  and  the  Hotel  Des  Invalides  at  Paris.    While  these  structures 


191 


180 


CARPENTRY 


are  domical  in  shape  they  are  not,  strictly  speaking,  domes,  because 
they  do  not  depend  for  support  upon  the  same  principle  which  is 
implied  in  the  construction  of  a  dome.  They  are,  correctly  speak- 
ing, arrangements  of  trusses  of  such  a  shape  as  to  give  the  required 
domical  form  to  the  exterior  of  the  roof. 

Fig.  251  shows  such  a  truss  supported  at  either  end  on  a  masonry 
wall.     Fig.  252,  which  is  a  plan  of  the  framing  of  this  roof,  shows 


Fig.  252.     Plan  of  Framing  for  Dome  Shown  in  Section  in  Fig.  251 

how  the  sections  or  bents  may  be  arranged.  There  are  two  complete 
bents,  A  B  and  C  D,  like  the  one  shown  in  the  elevation.  Fig.  251, 
which  intersect  each  other  at  the  center.  A  king-post  A  in  the 
elevation  is  common  to  both  bents  and  the  tie-beams  B  are  halved 
together  where  they  cross.  These  two  bents  divide  the  roof  surface 
into  four  quarters,  which  are  filled  in  by  shorter  ribs,  as  indicated 
in  the  plan,  Fig.  252.  The  posts  C,  in  Fig.  251,  carry  all  the  weight 
of  the  roof  to  the  walls  and  are  braced  by  means  of  the  pieces  D. 


192 


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181 


The  rounded  shape  is  given  to  the  exterior  and  interior  of  the  bent 
by  pieces  of  plank  bent  into  position  as  shown.  The  whole  is  covered 
with  boarding  which  is  cut  to  a  special  shape  so  that  it  can  be  bent 
into  place.  The  methods  of  applying  the  boarding  to  domical  roofs 
will  be  explained  in  connection  with  other  rough  boarding. 

The  arrangement  of  trusses  described  above  is  suitable  for  a 
plain  domical  roof  without  a  lantern  or  cupola  on  top,  but  very 


Fig.  253.     Framing  Plan  for  Dome  Having  Cupola 

frequently  this  feature  is  present  in  the  design,  and  the  roof  must 
be  framed  to  allow  for  it.  There  are  several  different  ways  of  arrang- 
ing the  trusses  so  as  to  leave  an  opening  in  the  center  of  the  roof 
for  the  lantern.  Fig.  253  shows  a  very  good  arrangement.  Four 
trusses  A  span  the  entire  distance  between  the  walls,  and  are  placed 
as  shown  in  the  figure,  so  as  to  leave  the  opening  B  in  the  center. 
Four  half  trusses  C  are  inserted  between  them,  as, shown,  and  eight 
shorter  ribs  D  are  employed  to  fill  in  the  rest  of  the  space. 


193 


182 


CARPENTRY 


Fig.  254  shows  another  arrangement,  providing  for  a  lantern  at 
the  center.  There  are  a  number  of  ribs  A,  twelve  in  number,  in  the 
figure,  all  radiating  from  the  center  where  there  is  a  circular  opening 
for  the  lantern  or  cupola.  In  Fig.  255  is  shown  a  section  through  a 
domical  roof  framed  in  this  way,  showing  an  elevation  of  one  of  the 
ribs.  The  rib  is  so  constructed  as  to  be  entirely  contained  in  the 
restricted  space  between  the  lines  of  the  exterior  and  interior  of 
the  roof. 


Fig.  254.     Framing  Plan  for  Dome  Having  Lantern  at  Center 

Pendentives.  In  the  preceding  paragraphs  we  have  considered 
the  subject  of  domical  roofs  covering  buildings  of  circular  plan,  which 
is  the  simplest  possible  case,  but  unfortunately  not  the  most  usual 
one.  It  very  often  happens  that  a  domical  roof  must  be  erected 
over  a  building  which  is  square  or  rectangular  in  plan,  in  which  case 
a  new  and  difficult  problem  must  be  considered,  namely,  that  of  the 
pendentives.  A  horizontal  section  taken  through  a  dome  must  in 
every  case  show  a  circle  or  possibly  an  ellipse.     If,  then,  we  con- 


194 


CARPENTRY 


183 


sider  the  horizontal  section  cut  from  a  domical  roof  by  the  plane  of 
the  top  of  the  wall,  it  must  usually  be  a  circle  and  can  not  exactly 
coincide  with  the  section  cut  from  the  wall  of  the  building  by  the 


Fig.  255.     Section  through  Domical  Roof  Showing  One  of  the  Ribs 

same  plane,  unless  the  building  is  circular  in  plan.  This  is  shown 
in  Fig.  256  in  which  A  B  C  D  represents  the  section  cut  from  the 
wall  of  the  building  by  a  horizontal  plane,  and  the  circle  E  F  G  H 
represents  the  section  which  would  be  cut  from  a  domical  roof  cover- 
ing the  building  if  the  framing 
for  the  dome  were  carried  down 
to  meet  this  plane  all  the  way 
around. 

In  order  to  cover  every  part 
of  the  building,  the  dome  must 
be  large  enough  to  include  the 
corners,  and  if  made  sufSciently 
large  for  this  it  must  overhang 
the  side  walls  of  the  building,  by 
an  amount  A  E  B  on  each  side, 
if  the  framing  is  carried  down 
to  the  same  horizontal  plane  all 
the  way  around.  Horizontal  sec- 
tions taken  through  the  dome  at  intervals  throughout  its  height, 
however,  show  smaller  and  smaller  circles  as  they  are  taken  nearer  and 


Fig.   256.     Diagram  Showing  Relation  of 
Dome  Roof  of  Square  Building 


195 


184 


CARPENTRY 


Fig.  257.    Perspective  Outline  of  Pendentives 


nearer  to  the  top  of  the  dome.  Some  one  of  these  sections  will  cut 
out  from  the  dome  a  circle  which  will  appear  in  plan  as  though  it 
were  inscribed  in  the  square  formed  by  the  walls  of  the  building. 

Such  a  circle  is  shownat  /  Jii"!/ 
in  Fig.  256.  A  dome  built  up  with 
this  circle  as  a  base  would  not 
cover  the  corners  of  the  build- 
ing, so  that  the  triangular  spaces 
like  AIL  would  be  kept  open. 
These  triangular  spaces,  or  rather 
the  coverings  over  them,  are 
called  the  pendentives.  Fig. 
257  shows  in  perspective  the 
outline  of  four  pendentives  E  D  H,    H  C  G,  etc. 

We  have  seen  that  a  dome  built  up  on  the  circumscribed  circle 
as  a  base  is  too  large,  while  a  dome  built  up  on  the  inscribed  circle 
is  too  small  and  mil  not  completely  cover  the  building.  To  over- 
come this  difficulty  it  is  customary  to  erect  a  dome  on  the  smaller 
or  inscribed  circle,  as  a  base,  and  to  extend  the  ribs  so  as  to  fill  up 
the  corners  and  form  a  framework  for  the  pendentives.     This  is 

shown  in  Fig.  258  which  is  a 
plan  of  the  framework  for  a 
domical  roof.  The  ribs  will  be 
of  different  lengths  and  will  in- 
tersect the  inside  face  of  the 
wall  at  different  heights,  be- 
cause as  they  are  extended 
outward  they  must  also  be  ex- 
tended downward.  Each  one 
will  be  curved  if  the  dome  is 
spherical,  and  straight  if  the 
dome  is  conical.  The  upper 
ends  of  the  ribs  bear  against  the 
curb  A,  leaving  a  circular  open- 
ing for  a  lantern  or  cupola. 
The  lower  ends  may  be  supported  on  a  masonry  wall,  or  may  rest 
on  curved  wood  plates,  as  shown  in  Fig.  259.  This  is  an  elevation 
of  a  conical  dome,  and  shows  the  straight  ribs  A. 


Fig.  258. 


Dome  Framing  with  Extended 
Rafters 


196 


CARPENTRY 


185 


Fig.  259.     Diagram  Showing  Construction  for 
Apex  of  Conical   Dome 


Fig.  260  shows  an  elevation  of  a  spherical  dome  which  has 
curved  ribs  A,  as  shown.  Each  of  these  ribs  must  be  bent  or  shaped 
to  the  segment  of  a  circle,  in  order  that  the  edges  may  lie  in  a  spherical 
surface. 

If  the  design  calls  for  a  domical  ceiling  and  the  exterior  may  be 
of  some  other  form,  then  only 
the  inside  edges  of  the  ribs 
need  be  dressed  to  corre- 
spond with  a  spherical  or 
conical  surface,  in  order  that 
they  may  receive  the  lathing 
or  furring,  and  the  outside 
may  be  left  rough  so  that  a 
false  roof  of  any  desired 
shape  may  be  built.  If  the 
exterior  must  be  of  domical 
form,  while  on  the  interior 
there  is  a  suspended  or  false 
ceiling  of  some  kind,  then  only  the  outside  edges  of  the  ribs  must 
lie  in  the  conical  or  spherical  surface,  so  as  to  receive  the  roof  board- 
ing, while  the  inside  edges  may  be  left  rough  or  shaped  to  any 
other  form.  If  both  the  exterior  and  interior  must  be  domical,  then 
both  the  inside  and  outside 
edges  of  the  ribs  must  be 
dressed  so  as  to  lie  in  the 
domical  surface. 

Conical  domes  are  very 
uncommon,    but    they  are 
sometimes  used.    A  conical 
dome    is    much    easier    to 
frame     than    a     spherical 
dome  because  the  ribs  are 
straight.    The  shape  of  the 
curved    plate    which    sup- 
ports the  lower  ends  of  the  ribs  may  be  easily  determined,  since 
it  must  conform  to  the  line  of  intersection  between  the  conical  or 
spherical   surface   of   the   dome,   and    the    plane    of   the  face   of 
the  wall. 


Fig.  260.     Diagram  Showing  Construction  for 
Spherical  Dome 


197 


186 


CARPENTRY 


Fig.  261. 


Plan  of  Vertical  Studding  for  a 
Niche 


Niches.  Niches  are  of  common  occurrence  in  building  work, 
especially  in  churches,  halls,  and  other  important  structures.  Some- 
times they  are  simply  recesses  in  the  wall  with  straight  corners  and 
a  square  head,  but  more  often  they  are  semicircular  in  form,  with 

spherical  heads,  in  which  case 
the  framing  becomes  a  matter 
of  some  difficulty.  The  fram- 
ing of  the  wall  for  a  semicircular 
niche  is  the  easiest  part  of  the 
work,  since  all  the  pieces  may 
be  straight,  but  for  the  framing 
of  the  head  the  ribs  must  be 
bent  or  shaped  to  conform  to  the  surface  of  a  sphere. 

Fig.  261  shows  in  plan  the  way  in  which  the  vertical  studding 
of  the  walls  must  be  placed.  The  inside  edges  must  he  in  a  cylindri- 
cal surface,  and  will  receive  the  lathing  and  plastering.  There  must 
be  a  curved  sole  piece  for  them  to  rest  upon  at  the  bottom  and  a  cap 
at  the  top.  The  cap  is  shown  at  A  B,  in  Fig.  262,  which  is  an  eleva- 
tion of  the  cradling  or  framing  for  the  niche.  This  figure  shows 
how  the  ribs  for  the  head  of  the  niche  must  be  bent.     The  ribs  and 

vertical  studs  must  be  spaced 
not  more  than  12  inches  apart, 
center  to  center. 

The  form  of  niches  described 
above  is  the  most  common  one 
for  large  niches  intended  to 
hold  full  size  casts  or  other 
pieces  of  statuary,  but  smaller 
ones  for  holding  busts  and  vases 
are  quite  common.  These  are 
often  made  in  the  form  of  a 
quarter  sphere  or  some  smaller 
segment  of  a  sphere,  with  a  flat 
base  or  floor  and  a  spherical  head,  as  is  shown  in  section  in  Fig. 
263.  They  are  framed  with  curved  ribs  in  the  same  way  as  described 
above,  and  finished  with  lathing  and  plastering. 

Vaults  and  Groins.  Although  vaulted  roofs  are  an  outgrowth 
of  masonry  construction,  and  are  almost  always  built  of  brick  or 


Fig.  262.     Elevation  of  Framing  for  the  Niche 


198 


CARPENTRY 


187 


Fig.  263.    Section  of 
Small  Niche 


stone,  they  are  occasionally  built  of  timber,  and  in  any  case  a  timber 
centering  must  be  built  for  them.  A  vault  may  be  described  as  the 
surface  generated  by  a  curved  line,  as  the  line  moves  through  space, 
and  in  accordance  with  this  definition  there  are  vaults  of  all  kinds, 
semicircular  or  barrel  vaults,  elliptical  vaults, 
conical  vaults,  and  many  others. 

In  Fig.  264  is  shown  in  outline  a  simple 
semicircular  or  barrel  vault,  known  as  well  by 
the  name  cylindrical  vault.  The  point  A  where 
the  straight  vertical  wall  ends  and  the  curved 
surface  begins  is  called  the  springing  point.  The 
point  B  is  the  crown  of  the  vault.  The  distance 
between  the  springing  points  on  opposite  sides 
of  the  vault  is  the  span,  and  the  vertical  dis- 
tance between  the  springing  point  and  the  crown 
B  is  the  rise. 

It  may  easily  be  seen  how  a  barrel  vault,  or 
a  vault  of  any  kind,  may  be  framed  with  curved 
ribs  spaced  from  1  foot  to  18   inches   apart  on 
centers,  and  following  the  outline  of  a  section  of  the  vault.     If  the 
framework  is  intended  to  be  permanent  and  to  form  the  body  of  the 
vault  itself,  then  the  inner  edges  of  the  ribs  must  lie  in  the  surface 
of  the  vault  and  must  be  covered  with 
lathing  and  plastering.     If  only  a  center- 
ing is  being  built,  on  which  it  is  intended 
that  a  masonry  vault  shall  be  supported 
temporarily,  then  the  outer  edges  of  the 
ribs  must  conform  to  the  vaulted  sur- 
face and  must  be  covered  with  rough 
boarding  to  receive  the  masonry. 

When  two  vaults  intersect  each 
other,  as  in  the  case  of  a  main  vault, 
and  the  vault  over  a  transept,  the  ceil- 
ing at  the  place  where  vaults  come  together  is  said  to  be  groined. 
The  two  vaults  may  be  of  the  same  height  or  of  different 
heights.  If  they  are  of  different  heights  the  intersection  is 
known  as  a  Welsh  groin.  Welsh  groins  are  of  common  occurrence 
in  masonry  construction,  but   in   carpentry  work    the   vaults   are 


Fig.  264.     Diagram  of  Cylin- 
drical Vault 


199 


188 


CARPENTRY 


almost  always  made  equal  in  height  and  often  they  are  of  equal 
span  as  well. 

The  framework  for  each  vault  is  composed  of  ribs  spaced  com- 
paratively close  together,  and  resting  on  the  side  walls  at  the  spring- 
ing line.  When,  however,  the  two  vaults  intersect  each  other,  the 
side  walls  must  stop  at  the  points  where  they  meet,  and  a  square  or 
rectangular  area  is  left  which  has  no  vertical  walls  around  it  The 
covering  for  this  area  must  be  supported  at  the  four  corner  points 
in  which  the  side  walls  intersect.  This  is  shown  in  plan  in  Fig.  265 
where  A  B  C  D  are  the  points  of  intersection  of  the  walls  of  the  vaults. 
The  method  of  covering  the  area  common  to  both  vaults  is  also  shown 


Fig.  265.     One  Method  of  Cradling  for 
Groined  Ceiling 


Fig.  266.    Another  Method  of  Cradling  for 
Groined  Ceiling 


in  the  figure.  Diagonal  ribs  A  D  and  C  B  are  put  in  place  so  as  to 
span  the  distance  from  corner  to  corner  and  these  form  the  basis 
for  the  rest  of  the  framing.  They  must  be  bent  to  such  a  shape 
that  they  will  coincide  exactly  with  the  line  of  intersection  of  the 
two  vaulted  surfaces.  The  ribs  which  form  the  framing  for  the 
groined  ceiling  over  the  area  are  supported  on  the  diagonal  ribs  as 
shown  in  the  figure.  They  are  arranged  symmetrically  with  respect 
to  the  center,  and  are  bent  or  shaped  to  the  form  of  segments  of 
circles  or  ellipses. 

Fig.  265  shows  one  method  of  forming  the  cradling  for  a  groined 
ceiling,  but  there  is  another  which  is  also  in  common  use.  This  is 
shown  in  Fig.  266.     There  are  four  curved  ribs  AB,  B  D,  CD,  and 


200 


CARPENTRY 


189 


C  A,  which  span  the  distances  from  corner  to  corner  around  the 
space  to  be  covered.  The  diagonal  ribs  A  D  and  C  B  are  also  employed 
as  in  the  first  method.  Straight  horizontal  purlins  are  supported  on 
these  ribs,  running  parallel  to  the  direction  of  the  vaults,  as  shown 
in  the  figure.  They  are  spaced  about  16  inches  apart  and  form  the 
framework  for  the  ceiling. 

The  only  difficult  problem  in  connection  with  groined  ceilings 
is  to  find  the  shape  of  the  diagonal  rib.  This  rib,  as  has  been  explained 
above,  must  coincide  with  the  line  of  intersection  of  the  vaults.  The 
problem,  then,  is  to  find  the  true  shape  of  the  diagonal  rib. 

Let  us  consider  the  two  vaults  shown  in  plan  in  Fig.  267.  They 
are  not  of  the  same  span,  but  they  will  be  of  the  same  height  if  we 
wish  to  have  a  common  groin 
and  not  a  Welsh  groin;  so  if 
one  is  semicircular  the  other 
must  be  elliptical.  Elevations 
of  ribs  in  each  vault  are  shown 
at  A  and  B  and  the  diagonal  ribs 
are  shown  in  plan  at  ^  C  and 
B  D.  It  is  easy  to  find  the 
plan  of  these  ribs  because  they 
must  pass  from  corner  to  corner 
diagonally.  To  find  the  eleva- 
tion we  must  use  the  same  prin- 
ciple that  was  employed  in  finding  the  position  of  the  valley  rafter 
and  the  shape  of  the  curved  hip  rafter  for  an  ogee  roof,  namely, 
any  line  drawn  in  the  roof  or  ceiling  surface  parallel  to  the  plate 
or  side  walls  must  be  horizontal,  and  all  points  in  it  must  be  at 
the  same  elevation. 

We  start  with  the  assumption  that  one  of  the  vaults  is  semicir- 
cular, as  shown  in  elevation  at  A,  Fig.  267.  Taking  any  line  in  the 
vaulted  surface,  shown  in  plan,  as  the  line  S  P  0,we  produce  it  until 
it  intersects  the  plan  of  the  diagonal  rib  AC  at  the  point  0.  This 
point  must  be  the  plan  of  one  point  in  the  line  of  intersection  of  the 
vaulted  surfaces. 

The  elevation  of  the  point  0  above  the  springing  line  of  the 
vaults  is  shown  by  the  distance  P  S,  since  the  line  *S  P  0  is  exactly 
horizontal  throughout.     This  distance  is  laid  off  at  EF  with  the 


Fig.  267.     Diagram  Showing  Method  of 

Finding  Diagonal  Rib  for  Two 

Intersecting  Vaults 


201 


190  CARPENTRY 

line  G  E  H  representing  the  horizontal  plane  which  contains  the 
springing  Hnes  of  the  vaults.  The  point  H  is  the  point  from  which 
the  diagonal  rib  starts.  The  point  F,  as  we  have  seen,  is  another 
point  in  the  curve,  and  we  can  by  a  similar  process  locate  as  many 
points  as  we  need.  This  will  enable  us  to  draw  the  complete  curve 
GFH  of  the  line  in  which  the  vaults  intersect,  and  to  which  the 
diagonal  rib  must  conform. 

By  continuing  the  line  from  the  point  0  at  right  angles  to  its 
former  direction  and  parallel  to  the  wall  line,  we  may  obtain  the 
point  K,  which  is  a  plan  of  one  point  in  the  surface  of  the  elliptical 
vault.  The  elevation  of  this  point  also  above  the  springing  lines 
must  be  the  same  as  for  the  point  S  and  may  be  laid  off,  as  shown  at 
K  M.  By  finding  other  points  in  a  similar  way  the  curve  N  M  R  oi 
the  elliptical  vault  may  be  readily  determined. 


202 


STAIR  HALL  OF  HOUSE  IN  URBANA,  ILL. 


LIVING  ROOM  OF  HOUSE  IN  URBANA,  ILL. 

Wbite  &  Temple,  Architects,  University  of  lUinoi 
For  Exterior  and  Plans,  See  Page  366. 


CARPENTRY 

PART  IV 


EXTERIOR  AND  INTERIOR  FINISH 

In  the  preceding  pages  we  have  considered,  the  most  important 
of  the  methods  in  use  for  the  construction  of  the  rough  framework 
of  buildings.  We  will  now  take  up  the  general  subject  of  finish, 
both  outside  and  inside.  There  are  two  things  which  the  outside 
finish  of  a  building  is  intended  to  do :  first,  to  protect  the  vital  part 
of  the  structure — the  framework;  and  second,  to  decorate  this  frame- 
work and  to  make  it  as  pleasing  in  appearance  as  may  be  possible. 
Both  of  these  purposes  must  be  borne  in  mind  when  designing  or 
erecting  any  outside  finish,  as  both  are  equally  important  and  neither 
should  be  neglected. 

Material.  The  material  used  for  the  finish  varies  under  different 
conditions  and  in  different  parts  of  the  country.  Of  course,  it  must 
first  of  all  be  durable  when  exposed  to  the  weather,  and  it  must  be 
a  wood  which  can  be  easily  worked.  The  best  kinds  of  wood  for 
the  purpose  are  white  pine  and  cypress,  and  one  of  these  woods 
is  generally  used.  Spruce  and  Georgia  pine  are  sometimes  used  on 
cheap  work,  but  they  are  much  inferior  to  white  pine.  Poplar  is 
very  good  but  scarce.  Pine  should  be  employed  wherever  it  is 
obtainable. 

OUTSIDE  WALL  FINISH 

Sheathing.  The  first  operation  in  connection  with  the  applica- 
tion of  the  finish  is  that  of  covering  the  framework  with  sheathing, 
which  should  be  about  1  inch  in  thickness,  and  for  the  best  work, 
dressed  on  one  side.  The  sheathing  should  be  placed  diagonally 
across  the  studding  when  the  frame  is  of  the  "balloon"  variety, 
but  in  case  of  a  braced  frame  the  boards  need  not  be  so  placed.  With 
the  braced  frame,  the  boarding  may  be  started  at  any  time,  but 
with  the  balloon  frame  it  is  necessary  to  wait  until  all  of  the  studding 

Copyright,  1912,  hy  American  School  of  Correspondence. 


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192  CARPENTRY 

has  been  placed  in  the  outside  walls.  The  sheathing  should  be  laid 
close,  but  need  not  be  matched,  and  the  boards  should  be  fairly 
wide,  say  8  to  10  inches,  or  even  more.  The  most  common  material 
for  this  work  is  yellow  pine  free  from  loose  knots.  Spruce  or  hemlock 
may  be  used  with  good  results. 

The  roof  sheathing  is  nailed  on  at  right  angles  to  the  rafters 
but  the  boards  are  narrower.  The  width  is  usually  4  inches  but  6 
inches  works  well  also.  They  are  laid  with  spaces  between  them 
for  the  passage  of  air.  These  spaces  are  from  2  to  3  inches  wide  and 
are  left  for  the  ventilation  of  the  shingling  or  other  roof  covering, 
and  for  the  cheapening  of  the  rough  boarding. 

Roof  boarding  is  not  laid  diagonally,  but  if  this  were  done  a 
very  much  stronger  building  would  be  obtained  than  where  the 
boarding  is  laid  horizontally,  because  each  board  acts  somewhat 
as  a  truss  to  bind  the  whole  framework  more  securely  together. 
Some  curved  work,  such  as  round  towers  and  bay  windows,  is  boarded 
diagonally,  when  it  is  impossible  to  place  the  boards  in  any  other  way. 
Each  piece  should  be  well  nailed  to  each  stud  or  rafter  with  large 
nails,  ten-penny  or  eight-penny,  and  no  serious  defects  such  as 
large  knots  should  be  allowed  in  the  sheathing. 

Building  Paper.  Building  or  sheathing  paper  is  now  placed 
over  the  sheathing  to  keep  out  the  weather  and  to  cover  more  com- 
pletely the  joints  in  the  boarding.  This  paper  must  be  tough  and 
strong  as  well  as  waterproof,  and  must  be  easy  to  handle  and  put 
in  place.  It  must  not  be  easily  broken  as  any  hole  in  it  is  an  opening 
through  which  the  weather  will  surely  find  its  way.  There  are  a 
number  of  different  kinds  of  building  paper  on  the  market,  prepared 
with  various  chemicals  to  render  them  as  nearly  waterproof  as 
possible.  Tar  is  sometimes  used  for  this  purpose.  The  paper  should 
always  be  laid  with  a  good  lap. 

Water  Table.  Starting  at  the  bottom  of  a  wood  structure, 
at  the  point  where  the  masonry  foundation  wall  stops  and  the  timber 
framework  begins,  the  first  part  of  the  outside  finish  which  meets 
the  eye  is  the  water  table,  so  called  because  its  purpose  is  to  protect 
the  foundation  wall  from  the  injury  which  would  result  if  water 
were  allowed  to  run  down  the  side  of  the  building  directly  onto  the 
masonry.  The  water  table,  therefore,  must  be  so  constructed  as 
to  direct  the  water  away  from  the  top  of  the  foundation  wall.    This 


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193 


may  be  accomplished  in  several  ways,  some  of  which  will  be  described 
and  illustrated. 

Fig.  268  shows  the  simplest  form  which  can  be  used  for  a  building 
which  is  to  be  covered  with  clapboards  (this  covering  will  be  discussed 
later).  A  is  the  foundation  wall,  which  may  be  stone,  brick,  or 
concrete.  B  is  the  sill,  which  may  be  in  one  or  two  pieces  and  which 
has  already  been  described  at  length.  C  is  the  boarding  or  sheathing, 
which  in  this  case  is  flush  with  the  outside  of  the  foundation  wall, 
the  sill  being  set  back  about  1  inch  from  this  face.  The  board  D 
is  nailed  so  as  to  cover  the  joint  between  the  top  of  the  foundation 
wall  and  the  sheathing,  and  on  the  top  of  it  is  fastened  the  water 


Fig. 


268.        Simple    Form    of 
Water  Table 


Fig.     269.       Type    of    Water 

Table  with  Rabbeted 

Table  Board 


table  E,  which  is  inclined  downward  and  outward  so  as  to  shed  the 
water.  The  piece  F  is  inserted  to  set  out  the  first  and  lowest  piece 
of  siding  G. 

Fig.  269  shows  another  way  of  constructing  a  water  table  for 
a  building  with  clapboards.  In  this  case  the  sill  B  is  set  back  about 
4  inches  from  the  face  of  the  wall  A,  and  a  block  is  nailed  to  the 
bottom  of  the  boarding,  as  at  C,  so  as  to  set  the  piece  D  out  clear  of 
the  face  of  the  wall.  This  piece  is  rabbeted  at  the  top  as  shown, 
so  as  to  take  in  the  bottom  of  the  last  clapboard. 

Another  method  is  shown  in  Fig.  270.  In  this  case  the  board 
D  is  again  made  use  of  to  cover  the  joint  between  the  sheathing 
and  the  foundation  wall,  and  it  is  nailed  directly  to  the  boarding 


205 


194 


CARPENTRY 


as  before,  but  the  piece  E  is  much  larger  and  is  blocked  out  by  means 
of  the  addition  of  the  piece  G,  so  as  to  throw  the  water  well  away 
from  the  masonry.  In  many  respects  this  detail  is  the  best  of  the 
three,  as  the  joint  is  well  covered  and  at  the  same  time  there  is  pro- 
vided a  very  good  wash  for  the  rain  water.  There  are  many  other 
ways  of  building  this  part  of  the  finish,  but  only  one  more  will  be 
shown  for  use  when  the  walls  are  to  be  covered  with  shingles.  Fig. 
271  shows  how  this  should  be  done.  Two  or  even  three  blocks,  as 
at  F,  are  nailed  to  the  boarding  and  the  shingles  G  are  bent  over  them 
so  as  to  shed  the  water  free  of  the  masonry  without  further  help. 
They  may  be  finished  at  the  bottom  with  a  molded  piece  D  to  hide 
the  joint. 

The  water  table  is  sometimes  omitted  entirely  and  the  clap- 
boarding  is  started  directly  from  the  foundation  wall,  but  this  is 

not   considered  good  practice  and  will 
surely  be  found  to  be  unsatisfactory. 


Fig   270       Water  Table  of 
Simple  Construction 


Fig.  271.  Water  Table  Used 
with  Shingled  Walls 


Clapboards  for  Wall  Covering.  The  clapboards  used  for  cover- 
ing walls  are  usually  of  white  pine  or  spruce,  though  they  are  some- 
times made  from  a  cheaper  timber  such  as  hemlock  or  fir.  They 
are  about  5  or  6  inches  wide  and  about  4  feet  long  and  are  thicker 
on  one  side  or  edge  than  on  the  other.  The  thicker  edge  measures 
about  I  inch  while  the  thin  edge  is  only  about  |  inch  thick.  Each 
clapboard,  therefore,  is  as  shown  in  Fig.  272,  where  A  is  an  elevation 
and  5  is  a  section  of  the  board.  The  tapering  section  is  obtained 
by  sawing  the  boards  from  a  log,  cutting  each  time  from  the  circum- 


206 


CARPENTRY 


195 


ference  Inward.    The  boards  are  thus  all  quarter  sawed  and  shrink 

evenly,  if  at  all,  when  they  are  exposed.    When  laid  up  on  the  side 

of  a  building,  the  clapboards  should  lap  over  each  other  at  least 

1|  inches,  as  shown  in  Fig.  273. 

Here,  A  is  the  clapboarding,  B 

is  the  sheathing,  and   C  is   the 

studding.     As  will  be  seen,  the 

clapboards  lap  over  each  other, 

leaving  a  certain  amount  of  each 

board   exposed  to  the  weather. 

This  term  "to  the  weather"  is  made  use  of  in  many  specifications  to 

indicate  the  amount  of  board  which  is  to  be  exposed.     Thus,  "4  inches 

to  the  weather"  means  that  4  inches  will  be  exposed.    Building  paper 

should  be  placed  between  the  clapboarding  and  the  sheathing,  as 

shown  at  D,  to  keep  out  the  weather. 


Fig.  272.    Side  and  End  Views  of  a  Clapboard 


Fig.  273.    Section  Showing  Method 
of  Laying  Clapboards 


Fig.  274.    Section  Showing  Method 
of  Laying  Siding 


Siding.  The  only  difference  between  common  siding  and  clap- 
boards is  in  the  length  of  the  pieces,  the  siding  coming  in  lengths  of 
from  6  to  16  feet,  while  the  clapboards  are  in  short  lengths  as  explained 
above.  Common  siding  is  put  on  in  the  same  way  as  clapboards, 
but  there  is  manufactured  a  rabbeted  siding  which  is  laid  up  as  shown 
in  Fig.  274.     Here  the  rabbet  takes  the  place  of  the  lap,  and  is  made 


207 


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CARPENTRY 


about  f  inch  deep.  This  siding  is  also  furnished  molded  to  a  number 
of  other  patterns  besides  the  simple  beveled  pattern,  and  is  of  various 
widths  up  to  about  12  inches.    Sometimes  it  is  nailed  directly  to  the 

studding,  no  building  paper  or 
outside  boarding  being  used, 
but  this  construction,  although 
it  is  cheap,  is  not  suitable  for 
any  but  temporary  buildings. 

Corner  Boards.  It  is  cus- 
tomary, whenever  the  walls  of 
a  building  are  covered  with 
clapboards,  to  make  a  special 
finish  at  the  corners.  This 
finish  usually  takes  the  form 
of  two  boards,  one  about  5 
inches  wdde,  the  other  3| 
inches  wide  by  about  1| 
inches  thick,  placed  vertically 
at  each  side  of  the  corner 
so  as  to  project  1|  inches — 
the  thickness  of  the  board — beyond  the  face  of  the  sheathing.  Thus 
they  form  something  for  the  clapboards  to  be  fitted  against.  The 
corner  boards  may  be  mitered  at  the  corner,  but  this  is  not  desirable, 
as  it  is  hard  to  make  such  a  joint  so  that  it  will  not  open  up  under 


Fig.  275.     Simple  Corner  Board  in  Place 


Fig.  276.    Section  Showing  Corner 
Board  Construction 


Fig.  277.    Shingled  Wall  Requires 
no  Corner  Board 


the  influence  of  the  weather.  The  corner  boards  are,  therefore, 
usually  finished  at  the  corner  with  a  simple  butt  joint,  the  two  pieces 
being  securely  nailed  together.     In  some  styles  of  work  it  may  be 


208 


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197 


well  to  give  the  corner  boards  a  special  character,  and  this  can  be 
done  by  crowning  them  at  the  top  with  a  capital,  so  that  they  will 
form  a  sort  of  pilaster  at  each  corner  of  the  house.  A  base  may  also 
be  added  if  desired,  though  it  is  hard  to  make  a  base  finish  well  on 
top  of  the  water  table.  Fig.  275  shows  a  view  of  a  simple  corner 
board  in  place  on  the  outside  corner  of  a  house.  A  is  the  corner 
board,  B  is  the  clapboarding,  C  is  the  water  table,  and  D  is  the  foun- 
dation wall.  Fig.  276  shows  a  section  taken  horizontally  through 
the  corner  of  a  building  with  corner  boards  and  clapboards,  showing 
how  the  corner  boards  are  applied  to  the 
outside  boarding.  In  this  figure,  A  is  one  of 
the  corner  boards,  B  is  the  outside  sheathing, 
C  is  the  studding  at  the  corner  built  up  of 
2  X 4-inch  pieces,  and  D  are  the  clapboards. 
The  width  of  the  boards  may,  of  course,  be 
varied  to  suit  the  taste  of  the  designer. 

When  the  walls  of  the  building  are  to  be 
covered  with  shingles  it  is  not  necessary  to 
have  corner  boards,  as  the  shingles  can  be 
brought  together  at  the  corner  and  made  to 
finish  nicely  against  each  other.  The  usual 
method  is  to  allow  the  shingles  on  the  adjacent 
sides  to  lap  over  each  other  alternately  as 
shown  at  A  in  Fig.  277. 

Shingles.  Instead  of  clapboards,  shingles 
may  be  used  for  covering  the  walls  of  a 
building,  though  this  method  is  more  expen- 
sive than  the  other.  The  advantages  are  in  the  appearance  of  the 
work,  the  variety  of  effects  which  may  be  obtained,  and  also  in  the 
fact  that  the  shingles  may  be  more  easily  dipped  in  some  stain  and 
a  greater  variety  of  colors  thus  obtained.  Wall  shingles  should  be 
laid  with  not  more  than  6  inches  to  the  weather,  and  an  exposure  of 
5  inches  is  better,  but  even  if  6  inches  are  exposed,  there  will  be  a 
greater  thickness  of  wood  covering  any  particular  spot  of  the  wall 
with  the  shingling  than  there  is  with  the  clapboarding,  and  thus  a 
greater  protection  from  the  weather  is  obtained.  The  arrangement 
of  shingling  on  a  wall  is  shown  in  Fig.  278.  It  will  be  seen  that  the 
shingles  are  in  all  cases  two  layers  and  in  some  cases  even  three 


Fig.    278.      Section    of 
Shingled  Wall 


209 


198 


CARPENTRY 


layers  thick.  The  width  of  ordinary  shingles  varies  from  about  3 
inches  to  about  12  inches,  and  for  rough  work  these  widths  may  be 
used  at  random,  but  shingles  which  are  called  "dimension  shingles," 
find  are  cut  to  a  uniform  width  of  6  inches,  may  be  had  and  these 
should  be  used  for  any  careful  work.  Also  shingles  may  be  obtained 
which  have  their  lower  ends  cut  to  a  great  variety  of  special  and 
stock  patterns,  which  may  be  worked  into  the  wall  so  as  to  yield 
any  desired  effect.  A  shingled  wall  is  shown  in  elevation  in  Fig.  277. 
Building  paper  should  be  used  under  shingles  in  the  same  way  as 

under  clapboards. 

Belt  Courses.  It  is  often  desir- 
able, for  the  sake  of  effect  or  for  the 
purpose  of  protecting  the  lower  part 
of  the  walls  of  a  building,  to  arrange  a 
horizontal  projecting  band  or  "course," 
as  it  is  called,  which  will  slightly 
overhang  the  lower  part  of  the  wall. 
This  is  called  a  "belt  course"  and 
usually  occurs  at  or  near  a  floor  level 
or  across  the  gable  end  of  a  building  at 
the  level  of  the  eaves.  A  belt  course 
is  formed  by  placing  blocks  or  brackets 
at  intervals  against  the  face  of  the 
outside  boarding,  these  blocks  being  cut 
to  the  required  shape  to  support  thin 
pieces  of  molding.  This  arrangement 
is  shown  in  section  in  Fig.  279.  Here, 
A  is  the  studding,  B  is  the  boarding, 
C  is  the  block  or  bracket,  D  is  the  finish  under  the  block,  E  is  the 
wall  shingling,  F  shows  where  the  shingles  come  down  over  the  belt 
course  and  the  furring  G  supports  the  finish  and  provides  nailing 
surface  for  the  first  course  of  shingles.  A  similar  belt  course  may  be 
placed  on  a  building  with  any  other  kind  of  wall  covering,  the  prin- 
ciple being  the  same  in  every  case,  and  the  purpose  being  always  to 
form  a  projecting  ridge  from  which  the  water  will  drip  without  injur- 
ing the  wall  surface  beneath.  Sometimes  the  wall  covering  is  not 
brought  out  over  the  top  of  the  belt  course,  but  is  stopped  immedi- 
ately above  it,  and  in  this  case  care  must  be  taken  to  see  that  the  top 


Fig.  279.    Details  of  Belt  Course 


210 


CARPENTRY 


199 


of  the  course  is  well  flashed  with  galvanized  iron  or  copper  so  that 
the  water  can  not  get  through  the  wall  around  it.  It  is  best  to  cover 
the  entire  top  of  the  belt  course  with  the  flashing  and  to  run  it  up 
onto  the  vertical  wall  4  or  5  inches  with  counter  flashing  over  it. 
The  method  of  flashing  will  be  explained  later. 


Fig.  280.     Simple 
Gutter 


OUTSIDE  ROOF  FINISH 

Finish  at  the  Eaves.  The  point,  or  rather  the  line,  in  which  the 
sloping  roof  meets  the  vertical  wall  is  called  the  "eaves"  and  this 
point  must  always  be  finished  in  some  way.  This  finish,  however, 
may  be  varied  to  almost  any  extent,  and  it  may  be  very  simple,  so 
as  to  barely  fulfill  the  necessary  requirements,  or  it  may  be  very 
elaborate  and  ornamental  as  well  as  practically  useful. 

Gutters.  Practical  considerations  require  that 
at  the  eaves  some  kind  of  a  gutter  must  be  provided, 
to  catch  the  water  which  falls  on  the  roof  and  streams 
off  from  it.  This  gutter,  of  whatever  kind,  must  be 
supported  far  enough  away  from  the  straight  vertical 
wall  of  the  building  so  that  the  water  dripping  from 
it  in  the  case  of  a  possible  overflow  will  fall  free  of  the  walls  and 
not  injure  them.  Usually,  the  gutter  ought  not  to  be  nearer  to  the 
wall  than  one  foot. 

There  are  a  number  of  different  kinds  of  gutters  in  use,  and  per- 
haps it  will  be  as  well  to  describe  some  of  them  at  this  time,  as  they 
form  a  part  of  the  eave  flnish.  The  simplest  kind  is  made  of  wood, 
and  is  generally  kept  in  stock  in  several 
different  sizes  by  lumber  dealers.  It  is 
of  the  general  shape  shown  in  section  in 
Fig.  280,  and  the  most  common  sizes  are 
4X6,  5X7,  and  5X8  inches.  They  are 
usually  made  of  white  pine,  but  may 
better  be  made  of  cypress  or  redwood. 
Spruce  is  hardly  durable  enough  for  use 

as  a  material  for  gutters.  Besides  the  wood  gutter  just  described, 
there  are  in  use  a  number  of  different  forms  of  metal  gutters,  some 
of  which  are  carried  in  stock  by  dealers  in  roof  supplies  and  others 
which  must  be  made  to  order  by  the  roofer  for  each  particular  job. 
The  metal  gutters  are  made  of  galvanized  iron,  copper,  or  of  a  tin 


Fig.    281.      Metal  Gutter 


211 


200 


CARPENTRY 


lining  in  a  wood  form.  Any  wood  gutter  may  be  improved  by 
lining  it  with  tin  or  zinc,  and  there  should  always  be  a  piece  of  one 
of  these  metals  used  to  cover  the  joint  between  the  two  pieces  of  a 
wood  gutter  where  they  meet.  Wood  gutters  can  be  had  only  in 
lengths  of  about  16  feet  at  the  most,  so  usually  there  must  be  some 
joints  to  be  covered  with  metal.  The  simplest  metal  gutter  takes 
the  form  of  a  trough,  as  shown  in  Fig.  281,  and  is  fastened  in  place 
by  hangers  placed  at  frequent  intervals  or  by  brackets  which  answer 
the  same  purpose.  Either  the  hangers  or  the  brackets  may  be 
spiked  to  the  ends  of  the  rafters,  and  thus  a  cheap  and  simple 

gutter  may  be  obtained. 

Open  Cornice.  The 
most  simple  way  of  sup- 
porting the  gutter  is  to  let 
the  main  rafters  of  the  roof 
framing  extend  out  over  the 
wall  as  far  as  necessary  and 
cut  a  rabbet  in  the  end  of 
each  of  them  into  which  the 
gutter  will  fit.  In  this  case 
the  wood  gutter  should  be 
used.  It  is  fastened  into 
the  notches  left  in  the  ends 
of  the  rafters,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  282.  In  this  figure,  A 
is  the  gutter,  B  is  the  rafter, 
C  is  the  studding  of  the  building,  D  is  the  plate  with  the  rafters  cut 
over  it  and  the  ceiling  joists  E  resting  on  top  of  it,  F  is  the  outside 
boarding,  which  may  be  covered  with  clapboards  or  shingles,  and 
G  is  the  roof  boarding,  which  may  be  covered  with  shingles  or  slates. 
In  one  respect  the  construction  shown  in  this  figure  is  faulty,  because 
the  gutter  being  placed  in  the  position  shown,  snow  sliding  off  the 
roof  would  catch  the  outer  edge  of  it  and  perhaps  tear  it  off.  The 
gutter  should,  wherever  possible,  be  placed  low  enough  so  that  the 
line  of  the  finished  roof,  H  in  the  figure,  will  clear  the  edge  of  it.  In 
order  to  improve  the  appearance  of  the  eaves  it  is  well  to  place  a 
board  J  along  the  edge  of  the  rafters  so  as  to  hide  them  and  present 
a  plain  surface  to  the  eye  and  to  finish  the  joint  between  this  board 


Fig.  282.    Section  Showing  OiDen  Cornice  Construction 


212 


CARPENTRY 


201 


and  the  under  side  of  the  gutter  with  a  small  bed  molding  K.  Under- 
neath the  rafters  where  they  cross  the  plate  and  come  through  the 
outside  boarding  is  placed  a  board  L  which  forms  a  stop  for  the  sid- 
ing or  shingles,  and  another  board  should  be  inserted  between  this 
and  the  under  side  of  the  roof  boarding,  as  shown  at  M.  It  is  also  a 
good  plan  to  cover  the  ends  of  the  ceiling  joists  with  a  strip  of  board- 
ing to  keep  the  wind  out  of  the  roof  space.  This  is  shown  at  0. 
The  finish  shown  in  Fig.  282  is  of  the  simplest  and  barest  kind  and 
can  be  used  only  for  buildings  of  an  unimportant  character  such  as 
stables  and  outhouses  or  for  cheap  country  houses. 

Boxed  Cornice.  A  better  finished  form  of  cornice  is  shown  in 
Fig.  283.  Here  an  extra 
piece  P  is  placed  just  above 
the  gutter  so  as  to  cover  the 
spaces  between  the  rafters, 
and  the  entire  under  side  of 
the  rafters  outside  of  the 
wall  of  the  building  is 
covered  with  boarding  as 
at  Q,  so  that  the  rafters 
will  not  be  seen  at  all. 
The  piece  L  must  still  be 
used,  however,  to  stop  the 
wall  covering.  This  figure 
also  shows  the  roof  shing- 
ling at  R.  This  should  be 
laid  about  4  to  4|  inches  to 
the  weather.  It  is  laid  closer  than  the  wall  shingling  because  it  is 
nearer  flat  and  the  water  will  stand  on  it  longer  than  it  will  stay  on 
the  wall.  The  water  thus  has  a  greater  chance  to  leak  through  and 
the  shingling  must  be  laid  closer  and  thicker  on  the  roof.  It  is  wise  to 
insert  blocks  on  top  of  the  plate  as  showm  at  *S,  and  to  continue  the  side 
sheathing  up  to  the  roof  sheathing  so  as  to  make  everything  tight. 
All  of  the  boarding  used  for  the  boxing  in  of  the  rafters  at  Q,  together 
with  the  pieces  L  and  J,  may  be  of  |-inch  stuff.  The  piece  P  should 
usually  be  of  l|-inch  stufjf  so  as  to  allow  of  rabbeting  it  to  receive  the 
gutter.  The  piece  K  may  be  molded  as  desired  by  the  designer  of 
the  building.     J  is  called  the  fascia  and  Q  is  called  the   planceer. 


Fig.  283.     Section  Showing  Boxed 
Cornice  Construction 


313 


202 


CARPENTRY 


The  principal  objection  to  the  boxed  cornice  is  that,  if  snow 
melts  in  the  gutter  and  freezes  afterward  so  as  to  fill  up  the  gutter 
during  the  winter,  it  is  very  likely  to  work  its  way  up  under  the 
shingles  when  it  finally  melts  in  the  spring,  and  in  this  way  find  its 
way  into  the  attic.  In  the  case  of  the  open  cornice  there  is  little 
chance  of  this  happening,  as  the  water  can  get  away  at  the  back  of 
the  gutter  between  the  rafters. 

Sometimes  it  is  desired  to  place  the  planceer  in  such  a  position 
that  it  will  be  horizontal  instead  of  following  up  along  the  under  side 

of  the  rafters.  This  is  accom- 
plished by  fastening  a  piece  of 
furring  to  the  end  of  the  rafter 
and  to  the  wall  in  such  a  way 
that  the  bottom  of  it  will  be  hori- 
zontal, and  spacing  these  pieces 
12  or  16  inches  apart  all  around 
the  eaves  of  the  building.  To 
this  furring  can  be  nailed  the 
planceer  which  will  box  in  the 
cornice  and  be  in  a  horizontal 
position.  The  gutter  can  still  be 
fastened  to  the  end  of  the  rafters 
as  before.  This  construction  is 
shown  in  Fig.  284.  The  pieces 
of  furring  referred  to  are  shown 
at  A. 

Fake  Rafter  Construction.  It 
is  often  desirable,  for  the  sake  of 
architectural  effect,  to  break  the  surface  of  the  roof  just  above  the  eave 
line,  and  in  order  to  do  this  it  is  necessary  to  make  use  of  small  pieces 
of  rafters,  called  false  rafters,  or  sometimes  "jack"  rafters,  which 
are  nailed  to  the  ends  of  the  regular  rafters.  In  this  case  the 
regular  rafters  stop  at  the  point  where  they  rest  on  the  plate,  and 
the  false  rafters  project  out  over  the  wall  line  as  far  as  may  be  desired. 
These  false  rafters  are  cut  into  various  shapes  and  are  usually  left 
exposed  on  the  under  side,  being  in  this  case  made  of  a  better  and 
harder  class  of  wood  than  that  used  for  the  regular  rafters.  The 
gutter  may  be  placed  on  the  ends  of  these  false  rafters  if  desired,  but 


Fig.  2S4.     Boxed  Cornice  with  Horizontal 
Planceer 


214 


CARPENTRY 


203 


it  is  more  usual  to  make  use  of  a  construction  such  as  is  shown  in 
Fig.  285.  Here  it  will  be  seen  that  the  gutter  is  merely  formed  up 
on  top  of  the  roof  shingling  by  a  piece  A  which  is  held  in  place  by 
the  bracket  B,  The  brackets  occur  at  intervals  of  about  2  feet, 
while  the  piece  A  is  continuous.  The  shingles  which  cover  the  roof 
are  stopped  on  the  strip  C  and  the  inside  of  the  gutter  thus  built  up 
is  covered  with  galvanized  iron,  or  copper,  to  make  it  water-tight. 
The  ends  of  the  rafters  may  be  finished  with  a  fascia  as  shown  at  D, 
and  the  space  between  the  false  rafters  along  the  wall  may  be  finished 
as  shown  at  E.  In  place  of  the  wood  piece  A  which  forms  the  out- 
side member  of  the  gutter,  a  piece  of  metal  rnay  be  used  to  accom- 
plish the  same  purpose,  and  this  is  often  done. 


Fig.  285.     False  Rafter  Construction  with  Shallow  Gutter 

Concealed  Gutters.  Another  common  form  of  eave  provides  a 
concealed  gutter.  In  this  construction  the  ceiling  joists  are  extended 
beyond  the  outside  walls  and  the  rafters  are  cut  to  set  over  the  plate. 
The  cornice  and  gutter  are  illustrated  in  Fig.  286.  The  studding  is 
shown  at  S,  and  on  the  plate  P  the  joists  C  extend  over  from  8  to 
14  inches,  depending  on  the  effect  desired.  Around  the  joist  the 
planceer  Q,  the  fascia  J,  the  bed  N,  and  crown  molding  M  are  fixed. 
A  notch  0  is  cut  in  the  joist  and  a  |-inch  piece  is  nailed  in  this  notch 
and  on  the  outer  end.  Tin  or  copper  is  used  to  conduct  the  water 
over  the  gutter.  The  tin  should  be  nailed  to  the  crown  molding 
and  should  be  run  8  or  10  inches  above  the  shingle  line. 

Finish  for  Brick  Walls.     Any  of  the  forms  of  eave  finish  described 


215 


204 


CARPENTRY 


above  may  be  used  equally  well  in  cases  where  the  wall  is  of  brick 
instead  of  wood.  In  this  case  a  wood  plate  is  placed  on  top  of  the 
brick  wall  and  the  rafters  are  brought  down  over  it,  and  are  either 
extended  out  over  the  wall  or  are  fitted  with  false  rafters.  The  joint 
between  the  brick  wall  and  the  wood  rafters  is  finished  with  a  wood 
frieze. 

Cornices  may  be  much  more  elaborate  than  any  of  those  illus- 
trated above,  indeed  those  shown  here  are  suitable  only  for  the  plain- 
est and  cheapest  kind  of  work,  but  the  principles  of  construction  are 
the  same  in  all  cases,  the  difference  being  in  the  amount  of  orna- 
ment applied  to  the  building.     The  ornament  takes  the  form  of 

molded  pieces  of  timber  which  are 
supported  by  rougher  furring 
pieces  placed  behind  them. 
Economy  demands  that  the 
finished  pieces  be  so  arranged 
as  to  be  cut  out  of  boarding  of 
medium  thickness,  and  as  much 
space  as  possible  should  be 
occupied  by  the  rough,  concealed 
furring.  As  a  rule,  all  of  the  eave 
finish  can  be  taken  out  of  |-inch 
stuff.  Care  must  be  taken  always 
to  give  the  gutters  the  proper 
slope  to  the  outlets  called  "down- 
spouts" and  they  should  be  made 
large  enough  so  as  not  to  over- 
flow.    A  gutter  should  slope  f  inch  to  the  foot. 

Ridge  Finish.  At  the  ridge  of  a  roof  where  the  two  slopes  meet 
there  must  be  some  special  provision  made  for  the  proper  finish  of 
the  roof  covering,  something  for  the  shingling  or  slating  to  finish 
on  as  well  as  some  adequate  means  of  covering  and  making  water- 
tight the  joint  which  occurs  at  this  place.  There  is  usually  a  ridge 
board,  or  ridgepole,  which  receives  the  rafters,  and  this  piece  may 
be  cut  off  just  at  the  ridge  so  that  the  rough  roof  boarding  goes  over 
it,  or  it  may  be  made  wider  and  may  project  up  above  the  roof 
boarding,  so  that  this  boarding  stops  against  it  instead  of  going 
over  it.     The  two  different  methods  call  for  different  kinds  of  ridge 


Fig.  286. 


Cornice  Construction  for  Con- 
cealed Gutter 


216 


CARPENTRY 


205 


finish.  The  first  is  the  most  simple,  and  may  be  taken  care  of  as 
shown  in  Fig.  287.  Here,  A  is  the  ridge  board,  BB  are  the  rafters, 
E  is  the  roof  boarding,  C  is  the  shinghng,  and  D  is  the  finish  at  the 
ridge,  consisting  of  two  pieces  of  board  about  6  or  8  inches  wide 
and  I  inch  thick,  which  are  nailed  on  top  of  the  shingling  to  form 
a  finish.  In  case  the  ridge  board  is  carried  up  above  the  roof  boarding, 
it  is  customary  to  make  the  ridge  finish  of  galvanized  iron  or  of 
copper  or  other  metal.  This  may  be  done  very  simply,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  288.  Here  the  ridge  board  is  extended  above  the  roof  board- 
ing and  around  it  is  shaped  a  strip  of  galvanized  iron  or  copper  or 
zinc,  which  is  continued  down  over  the  shingles  of  the  roof  so  as  to 
form  a  flashing.  This  makes  a  good  ridge  finish  and  one  which  is 
water-tight  if  it  is  properly  put  on.     The  galvanized  iron  should  be 


Fig.  287.     Simple   Ridge  Finish 


Fig.  288.     Galvanized  Iron  Ridge  Finish 


flashed  down  over  the  shingles  for  a  distance  of  at  least  6  inches.  It 
is  not  necessary  that  the  ridge  board  should  be  extended  above 
the  roof  boarding.  The  same  result  may  be  accomplished  by  nail- 
ing a  separate  piece  of  2  X  4-inch  or  2  X  5-inch  scantling  to  the  top 
of  the  shingles,  running  lengthwise  of  the  roof,  to  form  a  ridge  over 
which  the  metal  may  be  shaped.  This  method  may  perhaps  make 
a  tighter  job  than  the  other. 

Skylight  Openings.  It  is  sometimes  necessary  to  make  an 
opening  in  a  roof  surface  for  the  admission  of  light  to  the  rooms 
under  the  roof.  This  is  usually  done  by  the  formation  of  what  is 
known  as  a  dormer  window,  the  method  of  framing  for  which  has 
been  already  described,  but  often  it  is  desired  to  admit  light  when 
the  attic  space  is  not  of  sufficient  importance  to  justify  the  introduc- 
tion of  a  dormer  window  in  the  roof.     In  this  case  recourse  is  had 


217 


206 


CARPENTRY 


to  a  skylight.  A  skylight  may  be  obtained  by  the  use  of  glass  in  the 
roof  surface  in  place  of  other  roof  covering  such  as  roof  boarding  and 
shingles,  but  it  is  almost  always  necessary  to  provide  some  sort  of 
frame  for  this  glass,  and  the  glass  surface  is  usually  raised  about  6 
or  8  inches  above  the  shingled  roof  surface  so  as  to  keep  the  glass 
as  free  as  possible  from  snow  and  to  separate  it  from  the  general 
roof  surface.  The  first  thing  to  be  done  is  to  frame  an  opening, 
in  the  rough,  between  the  rafters,  by  introducing  trimmer  pieces 
just  above  and  below  the  place  where  the  opening  is  to  be.     This 


Fig.  289.     Section  Showing  Skylight  Construction 

completes  the  rough  framing  for  the  skylight.  The  finished  open- 
ing may  be  formed  in  a  number  of  ways,  one  of  which  is  shown  in 
Fig.  289.  Here,  AA  are  the  pieces  referred  to  above,  which  frame 
between  the  rafters  BB  and  form  the  rough  opening.  D  is  the  roof 
boarding  which  is  brought  up  to  the  edge  of  the  opening  as  framed, 
and  sawed  off  flush  with  it  as  shown.  CC  are  pieces  of  rough  stuff 
which  are  nailed  on  top  of  the  boarding  to  raise  the  skylight  above 
the  roof  surface.  They  may  be  of  any  size  desired,  but  in  this  case 
they  are  4X6  inches.  EE  is  sheathing  about  |  inch  thick  which 
forms  a  finish  for  the  inside  of  the  skylight  opening.      It  is  con- 


218 


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a. 

Ul 

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M 

1-1 

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43 

CARPENTRY 


207 


tinued  to  the  top  of  the  pieces  CC  and  down  to  the  plaster  hne 
inside  under  the  roof  so  as  to  cover  up  all  the  joints.  This  sheath- 
ing may  be  V-jointed  or  beaded  if  desired.  FF  is  furring  on  the 
under  sides  of  the  rafters,  and  G  is  the  plastering  under  the  roof. 
HH  are  finishing  pieces  covering  the  joint  between  the  sheathing 
and  the  plaster.  These  pieces  are  called  casing.  MM  is  flashing 
of  some  kind  of  metal,  which  should  be  carried  well  under  the  shingles 


cf~ 


P-^^C 


Fig.  290.     Plan  and  Section  of  Skylight  Window 


or  other  roof  covering  all  around  the  skylight,  and  is  carried  inside 
to  form  a  little  gutter  around  the  inside  of  the  skylight  just  under  the 
glass  as  shown,  in  order  to  catch  drippings  from  the  glass.  K  is 
the  sash  which  holds  the  glass.  It  should  be  hinged  to  open  at  the 
top  at  the  point  marked  L  and  should  project  an  inch  or  two  beyond 
the  frame  all  around  and  have  a  drip  cut  in  it  as  shown  at  0.  Fig. 
290  shows  an  elevation  and  a  section  through  a  sash  suitable  for  use 
in  a  skylight.  AA\^  the  top  rail  which  is  ploughed  to  receive  the 
glass  as  shown  at  B.     The  bottom  rail  CC  is  made  thinner  than  the 


219 


208  CARPENTRY 

top  rail  so  that  the  glass  can  pass  over  it  and  project  beyond  it  as 
shown  at  D.  EE  are  divisions  called  "muntins"  running  length- 
wise of  the  skylight,  their  distance  apart  and  the  number  of  them 
required  depending  upon  the  width  of  the  sheets  of  glass  used.  The 
muntins  support  the  sheets  of  glass  at  the  sides,  as  shown  in  Fig.  291, 
which  is  a  section  through  a  single  muntin.  In  this  figure,  A  is  the 
wood  muntin  itself,  BB  is  the  glass  on  each  side,  and  CC  is  the 
putty  which  is  used  to  hold  the  glass  in  place  and  to  make  the  joint 
tight.  In  a  skylight  sash  there  should  be  muntins  running  length- 
wise of  the  sash  only,  and  the  glass  should  be  supported  only  at  the 
side.  If  the  sash  is  so  long  that  a  single  sheet  of  glass  will  not  cover 
it,  two  or  more  pieces  should  be  used  and  should  be  lapped  on  each 
other  at  the  ends  as  shown  at  P  in  Fig.  289  and  at  F  in  Fig.  290. 
This  lap  should  be  from  1|^  to  2  inches.  The  side  pieces  of  the  sky- 
light sash,  GG  in  Fig.  290,  should  be  cut  similar 
to  the  muntins  to  receive  the  glass. 

There  are  a  number  of  other  methods  of  con- 
structing skylights  besides  the  one  shown  in  Fig. 
289.  The  construction  of  the  sash,  however,  is 
^^^'  ^^oV  M^^ntTnf ^°*'°'^  always  about  the  same  as  there  shown  and  as 
described,  the  difference  being  in  the  form  of  the 
frame.  The  pieces  marked  C  in  the  figure  are  sometimes  omitted 
entirely,  and  the  sheathing  E,  which  is  only  about  |  inch  in 
thickness,  is  replaced  by  planking  1|  to  2|  inches  thick.  Such 
planking  is  stiff  enough  to  be  allowed  to  project  6  or  8  inches 
above  the  roof  boarding  and  it  thus  takes  the  place  of  the  pieces  C. 
The  sash  then  rests  on  the  ends  of  this  planking,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  292.  In  this  figure,  A  A  is  the  rough  framing  similar  to 
that  in  Fig.  289,  BB  are  the  rafters,  CC  is  the  planking  men- 
tioned above,  which,  it  will  be  noticed,  does  not  extend  down  to  the 
plaster  line  on  the  inside,  but  is  stopped  about  3  inches  above  it  and 
is  pieced  out  with  a  strip  of  |-inch  stuff,  DD  the  joint  between  the 
two  pieces  being  covered  and  eased  off  by  a  molding  EE.  The 
architrave  HH  is  made  use  of  in  this  instance  also.  Other  open- 
ings in  the  roof  surface,  which  are  parallel  with  that  surface,  and 
which  are  for  other  purposes  than  the  admission  of  light,  such  as 
scuttles,  trap  doors,  etc.,  may  be  framed  and  finished  in  a  manner 
similar  to  that  just  described  for  skylight  openings. 


220 


CARPENTRY 


209 


Fig.  292.     Another  Form  of  Skylight  Construction 


Fig.  293.     Front  and  Side  View  of  Simple  Dormer  Window 


221 


210 


CARPENTRY 


Dormer  Windows.  When  it  is  desired  to  obtain  the  admission 
of  hght  to  the  space  under  the  roof  surface  in  a  way  more  elaborate 
and  satisfactory  than  is  possible  with  a  simple  skylight  such  as  has 
just  been  described,  recourse  is  had  to  dormer  windows.  They  are 
so  called  probably  because  in  early  times  nearly  all  of  the  sleeping- 
rooms  of  the  houses  were  under  the  roofs  and  were  lighted  by  means 
of  such  window^s.  They  are  formed  by  framing  an  opening  in  the 
roof  surface  in  the  same  way  as  described  for  skylights,  but  on  the 
rafters  and  on  this  framing  are  built  up  vertical  walls  of  a  height 


Fig.  294.     Section  through  Side 
Wall  Dormer  Window 


SECT/0// 
0.0.r/6.e9Q 


Fig.  295.     Section  of  Dormer  Side 
Wall  Showing  Boxed  Construction 


sufficient  to  take  a  small  window  set  in  vertically.  The  method  of 
building  the  rough  framework  has  been  already  described.  The 
walls  of  dormer  windows  are  treated  in  the  same  way  as  the  walls 
of  the  main  building,  being  covered  with  shingles  or  clapboards  or, 
in  some  cases,  with  slates.  Fig.  293  shows  the  most  simple  form 
of  dormer-window  roof.  This  is  a  simple  roof  with  a  pitch  in  one 
direction  only,  less  steep  than  the  pitch  of  the  main  roof  so  as  to 
allow  of  enough  vertical  wall  in  the  front  part  of  the  dormer  to 
accommodate  the  window,  and  uniting  with  the  main  roof  at  a 
point  farther  up  on  this  roof.    The  sides  of  the  dormer  are  covered 


222 


CARPENTRY  211 

solid  with  shingles  or  whatever  other  covering  is  used,  the  front  only 
containing  an  opening.  This  arrangement  is  the  same  for  all  dor- 
mer windows,  there  being  no  advantage  in  putting  openings  in  the 
sides.  The  roof,  shown  in  Fig.  293,  sheds  water  onto  the  main 
roof  in  front  of  the  dormer  window  and,  therefore,  there  should  be  a 
gutter  along  this  front  and  here  the  eaves  should  project  somewhat 
over  the  wall,  as  shown.  At  the  sides  there  need  be  no  projecting 
eaves.  A  section  through  the  gutter  would  be  similar  to  that  shown 
in  Fig.  283,  though  the  gutter  itself  may  be  a  little  smaller  and  the 
rafters  are  of  course  smaller.  The  piece  marked  A  in  Fig.  293 
serves  as  a  fascia  to  cover  the  ends  of  the  rafters  and  this  fascia 
should  be  continued  up  on  the  sides  of  the  dormer  as  shown  at  B  in 
Figs.  293  and  294.  (Fig.  294  is  a  section  to  a  larger  scale  through 
the  side  wall  of  the  dormer  window  near  the  roof.)  This  fascia  is 
cut  out  as  shown,  to  receive  the  shingles  which  cover  the  side  walls. 
The  gutter  marked  C  runs  along  the  front  of  the  dormer  and  should 
be  made  to  miter  at  the  end  with  a  molded  board  marked  D,  which 
runs  up  on  the  side.  A  section  through  this  molded  board  is  shown 
in  Fig.  294.  The  distance  E  in  this  figure  must  be  the  same  as  the 
distance  E  in  Fig.  293,  but  as  the  distance  G  is  not  the  same  as  the 
distance  F  (both  in  Fig.  293),  the  profile  of  the  molded  board  Z)  will 
not  be  the  same  as  that  of  the  gutter  C.  This  is  a  principle  w^hich 
will  often  be  met  with  in  gable  finish.  In  Fig.  294,  H  is  the  roof 
surface  of  the  dormer,  J  is  the  end  rafter,  K  is  the  boarding  on  the 
wall,  and  L  is  the  boarding  on  the  roof.  If  it  is  desired  that 
the  eaves  shall  project  beyond  the  walls  on  the  sides  as  well  as  on  the 
front  for  the  sake  of  effect  or  to  better  protect  these  side  walls,  this 
result  may  be  accomplished,  as  shown  in  Fig.  295,  by  blocking  out 
the  fascia  and  the  molded  board  as  far  as  necessary.  In  this  figure 
A  is  the  fascia,  B  is  the  molded  board,  C  is  the  blocking,  and  D  is 
the  roof  surface  of  the  dormer,  E  is  the  wall  of  the  dormer.  The 
blocking  C  should  consist  of  pieces  of  2-inch  stuff  cut  to  the  required 
shape  and  spaced  1|  feet  to  2  feet  apart  along  the  line  of  the  eaves 
to  receive  the  finished  pieces  A  and  B.  F  is  a  soffit  piece  added  to 
box  in  the  eaves  and  G  is  a,  secondary  fascia  added  to  receive  the 
shingles  or  other  covering. 

The  type  of  dormer  roof  just  described  throws  the  water  for- 
ward onto  the  main  roof  of  the  building,  but  this  arrangement  may 


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be  varied  by  allowing  the  roof  to  drain  sideways  like  an  ordinary 
double-pitched  gable  roof.  In  this  case  there  will  be  gutters  on 
the  eaves  at  the  sides  of  the  dormer  window  and  a  gable  on  the  front. 
Such  a  window  is  shown  in  Fig.  296,  in  which  A  represents  the  line  of 
the  finished  roof  surface,  while  B  is  the  roof  of  the  dormer  window 
shown  in  side  elevation,  C  being  the  side  wall  of  the  dormer  itself. 
D  is  the  gutter  at  the  eaves.  A  section  through  the  eaves  at  D 
would  be  very  much  like  that  shown  in  Fig.  283.  £^  is  a  fascia  cov- 
ering the  ends  of  the  rafters  and  the  eaves  may  be  either  open  or 


Fig.  296.     Dormer  Window  Construction  with  Gutters  on  Side  of  Dormer  Roof 

boxed  in.  The  fascia  E  is  usually  continued  around  the  front  of  the 
dormer  window  as  shown  at  F,  projecting  as  far  as  may  be  desired 
beyond  the  front  wall  G.  A  molded  board,  cut  in  such  a  way  as 
to  miter  with  the  gutter,  is  carried  up  the  side  of  the  gable  end,  and 
this  piece  is  generally  known  as  a  "raking  molding,"  or  a  "raking 
mold."  It  is  similar  in  shape  to  the  molded  board  shown  at  D  in 
Fig.  294.  A  section  through  the  fascia  where  it  runs  across  the  face 
of  the  dormer  is  shown  in  Fig.  297.  Here  A  is  the  fascia  board  which 
is  nailed  to  the  ends  of  pieces  called  "lookouts,"  about  2  inches 


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213 


thick  and  spaced  from  1  to  2  feet  apart,  as  shown  at  B.  The  look- 
outs may  be  nailed  to  the  studs  as  shown  in  the  figure  or  they  may 
be  merely  nailed  to  the  outside  boarding,  but  the  method  shown  is 
the  better  one,  as  it  gives  the  lookouts  a  very  much  firmer  support. 
The  under  side  of  the  lookouts  should  be  sheathed  with  |-inch  stuff 
as  shown  at  C,  with  a  piece  D  to  receive  the  shingles.  The  upper 
surfaces  should  be  covered  also  with  sheathing  and  on  top  of  this  a 
covering  of  galvanized  iron,  copper,  or  tin  to  shed  water.  Besides 
this  the  tops  of  the  lookouts  should  be  cut  with  a  pitch  outward,  as 
shown  at  E,  to  facilitate  the  shedding  of  water.  In  this  figure,  F  is 
the  studding  and  G  is  the  outside  boarding  which  comes  in  the  trian- 


Fig.  297.     Section  Through  Fascia  Board 


Fig.  298.     Gambrel  Roof  Finish 


gular  space  marked  H  in  Fig.  296.  A  section  through  the  raking 
molding  K,  in  Fig.  296,  is  similar  to  that  shown  in  Fig.  295. 

Although  the  two  types  of  dormer  windows  described  are  the 
basis  from  which  all  other  types  have  been  developed,  still  there  are 
many  kinds  of  dormers  which  have  quite  a  different  appearance. 
They  are  all,  however,  similar  in  construction  to  the  two  types  shown, 
the  difference  being  in  the  way  in  which  the  wall  covering  is  applied 
and  in  variations  in  the  proportion  and  in  the  shape  of  the  windows. 
The  ones  shown  are  the  very  simplest  of  their  respective  kinds,  but 
they  serve  to  illustrate  the  manner  in  which  all  should  be  constructed. 

Gambrel  Roof  Finish.  The  kind  of  roof  known  as  a  "gambrel 
roof"  has  already  been  described  so  far  as  the  framing  of  the  roof 
is  concerned,  but  at  the  point  where  the  steeper  part  of  the  roof 


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meets  the  flatter  part,  there  is  a  Uttle  finish  which  may  well  be 
described  and  illustrated  while  considering  the  roof  finish.  The  raf- 
ters B,  in  Fig.  298,  stop  at  the  top  against  a  framing  piece  C  and  the 
roof  boards  G  are  nailed  to  them,  but  the  ends  of  the  rafters  of  the 
flatter  portion  A  rest  on  top  of  the  piece  C  and  the  lower  end  would 
be  left  exposed  if  it  were  not  covered  by  the  finishing  piece  D,  This 
is  of  |-inch  stuff  and  runs  continuously  across  the  ends  of  all  the 
rafters,  covering  the  spaces  between  them.  It  is  well,  however,  to 
take  the  additional  precaution  of  putting  in  the  piece  H  so  as  to 
make  the  space  under  the  roof  less  accessible  to  the  weather.     The 


Fig.  299.     Diagram  of  Simple  Gable  End  of  a  Building 

shingles  or  other  roof  covering  on  the  flatter  portion  of  the  roof 
should  project  over  the  piece  D  far  enough  to  form  a  sufficient  drip 
over  it,  as  shown  at  F,  and  the  piece  E  should  be  inserted  to  catch 
the  drippings  and  shed  them  onto  the  shingling  of  the  steeper  roof. 

A  form  of  finish  similar  to  that  described  above  may  be  used 
in  the  case  of  a  deck  roof  at  the  point  where  the  flat  deck  meets 
the  inclined  roof  surface.  The  only  difference  between  the  deck 
roof  and  the  gambrel  roof  finish  shown  in  Fig.  298  is  that  the  rafters 
A  will  be  nearly  flat  instead  of  inclined,  but  this  will  not  affect  the 
application  of  the  finish. 

Gable  Finish.  We  have  seen  that  when  a  dormer  window  is 
designed  with  two  sloping  roof  surfaces,  there  is  thus  formed  on  the 


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215 


front  of  the  dormer  a  triangular-shaped  surface  which  must  be 
decorated  in  some  way  and  which  calls  for  a  certain  amount  of  fin- 
ish. The  same  thing  is  true  of  the  main  roof  when  this  is  designed 
as  a  gable  roof,  the  triangular  surfaces  at  the  ends  of  the  building 
being  known  as  "gables."  The  problem  which  presents  itself  here 
is  to  treat  the  lines  in  which  the  roof  surfaces  meet  the  vertical  wall 
surfaces  at  the  ends  of  the  building,  and  to  cover  up  the  rough  timber 
of  both  the  wall  and  the  roof.  The  most  simple  way  of  doing  this 
is  to  miter  the  gutters  at  the  sides  of  the  building  at  the  line  of  the 
eaves  with  a  raking  molding  which  will  follow  the  line  of  intersection 
between  the  roof  surfaces  and  the  gable  wall.     In  the  plainest  work 


Fig.  300.     Section   through    Raiding 
Molding  of  Fig.  299. 


Fig.  301.     Common  Type  of  Gable  Finish 


this  raking  molding  will  not  project  much  beyond  the  wall  line,  only 
far  enough  to  miter  properly  with  the  gutter.  Fig.  299  shows  a  very 
simple  gable  end  of  a  building  with  no  finish  except  the  raking  mold- 
ing, referred  to  above,  mitering  with  the  gutter  at  the  eaves.  In 
this  figure,  C  is  the  raking  molding,  D  is  the  gutter.  In  Fig.  300  is 
shown  a  large-scale  section  taken  through  the  raking  molding  where 
marked  section  A-B  in  Fig.  299.  In  Fig.  300  A  is  the  raking  mold- 
ing, B  is  the  roof  shingling,  C  is  the  roof  boarding,  D  the  rafters, 
E  the  end  studding,  F  the  outside  boarding  on  the  end  wall  of  the 
building,  and  G  the  fascia  below  the  raking  molding.  The  molding 
is  so  arranged  that  the  roof  boarding  stops  against  it  and  the  roof 


237 


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CARPENTRY 


Fig.  302. 


Use  of  Verge  Board  as  Gable 
Finish 


shingling  passes  over  it  and  projects  a  little  beyond  it  so  as  to  form 
a  drip  as  shown  at  K  in  Fig.  300.  In  the  space  marked  H  is  blocking 
consisting  of  rough  pieces  spaced  2  to  3  feet  apart  and  shaped  to  take 

the  back  of  the  molding. 

There  is  an  awkward  place 
at  the  point  marked  E  in  Fig. 
299,  where  the  line  of  the  gable 
meets  the  vertical  line  of  the 
corner  of  the  building,  and  some 
finish  is  usually  placed  here  to 
overcome  this  awkwardness.  In 
the  small  gable  on  the  end  of 
the  dormer  shown  in  Fig.  296 
the  fascia  is  carried  across  the 
face  of  the  gable  as  well  as  along 
the  raking  line  of  the  roof,  and 
this  arrangement  is  sometimes 
adopted  on  larger  gable  ends,  but  a  more  common  practice  is  only 
to  start  the  fascia  across  the  gable  end  wall  and  then  return  it  on 
itself  a  foot  or  two  from  the  corner  marked  E  in  Fig.  299,  stopping 

the  raking  fascia  on  top  of  it.  This  is 
shown  in  Fig.  301.  A  better  result  is 
obtained  by  returning  the  gutter  mold- 
ing as  well  as  the  fascia.  The  top  of 
the  return  marked  A  in  the  figure  should 
be  sloped  outward  slightly  so  as  to  shed 
water.  B  and  C  are  additional  fascia 
boards  which  are  added  to  giye  additional 
width  to  the  raking  moldings. 

Verge  Boards.  It  is  a  common  practice 
to  use  what  are  called  "verge  boards" 
for  the  finish  of  the  gable  ends  of  build- 
ings. These  are  a  kind  of  ornamental 
rafter  which  follows  up  the  rake  of 
the  roof,  not  along  the  wall  but  some 
distance  from  it,  being  held  in  place  by 
lookouts  which  are  nailed  to  the  studding  or  to  the  boarding  and 
placed  at  the  proper  distances  apart.     The  verge  board  forms  a  stop 


Fig.  303 


Section  through  Verge 
Board  and  End  Wall 


228 


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217 


for  the  gutter  and  furnishes  a  very  suitable  finish  for  the  gable.  It 
is  usually  crowned  with  a  raking  molding  of  some  sort  and  is,  there- 
fore, only  a  big  fascia.  Fig.  302  shows  a  verge  board  in  elevation  at 
the  point  where  it  joins  the  eaves,  and  Fig.  303  shows  a  section 
through  the  verge  board  and  the  end  wall  of  the  building  showing 
how  the  board  is  supported  by  the  lookouts.  In  this  figure,  A  is 
the  verge  board,  B  is  the  raking  molding,  C  is  the  blocking  which 
forms  the  lookout,  D  is  the  outside  boarding  of  the  wall,  and  E  is 
the  shingling,  F  is  the  roof  board- 
ing, and  G  is  the  roof  shingling. 

WINDOW  AND  DOOR  FINISH 

Outside  Finish  around  Win- 
dows. Wherever  there  is  an  open- 
ing in  the  wall  of  a  wood  build- 
ing, such  as  a  window^  or  a  door, 
the  outside  finish,  consisting  of 
shingling,  clapboarding,  or  other 
covering,  has  to  be  cut  through, 
and  if  no  special  provision  were 
made  for  the  finish  around  the 
opening  there  would  be  as  a 
result  a  very  ragged  appearance. 
In  order  to  avoid  this  it  is  cus- 
tomary to  place  all  around  the 
window  opening  pieces  of  finished 
timber  which  are  known  as  out- 
side trim,  outside  architrave,  or 
outside  casing.  These  pieces  form 
a  stop  for  the  wall  covering. 

Fig.  304  shows  a  window  opening  in  elevation  looking  from  the 
outside  and  showing  the  outside  trim.  At  A  is  shown  the  casing 
around  the  sides  and  head  of  the  window  and  at  B  is  shown  the  sill. 
In  Fig.  305  is  shown  a  section  through  the  sill  at  the  outside  of  the 
wall.  Here,  A  is  the  sill  itself  which  extends  through  the  wall  to 
the  inside  and  receives  the  sash  as  will  be  explained  later;  B  is  the 
rough  framing  for  the  opening  and  this  piece  goes  between  the  verti- 
cal studding  at  the  sides  of  the  rough  opening;  C  is  the  outside 


Fig,  304. 


Elevation   of   Window    Showing 
Outside  Trim 


229 


218 


CARPENTRY 


boarding  attached  to  the  studding;  D  is  the  wall  covering  of  shingles 
or  clapboards;  and  E  is  building  paper  which  must  be  placed  between 
the  outside  boarding  and  the  wall  covering.  It  will  be  noticed  that 
the  under  side  of  the  sill  is  ploughed  to  receive  the  shingles  or  clap- 
boards and  that  it  projects  out  over  the  wall  line  a  distance  of  about 
1  inch,  so  as  to  let  rainwater  drip  to  the  ground  without  touching 
the  wall.  This  figure  shows  the  simplest  sort  of  sill,  such  as  would 
be  used  only  for  very  cheap  work.  In  more  important  work  it  is 
customary  to  add  another  piece,  called  an  "apron,"  under  the  pro- 
jecting part  of  the  sill,  as  shown  in  Fig.  306,  where  A  is  the  apron, 
B  is  the  sill,  and  C  is  the  wall  covering.  The  purpose  of  the  apron 
A  is  to  cover  the  joint  between  the  wall  covering  and  the  sill  and  to 
give  it  a  finished  appearance.     Fig,  307  shows  a  section  taken  through 


Fig.  305.     Section  through 
Sill  at  Outside  of  wall 


Fig.  306.     Sill  Details  Show- 
ing Use  of  "Apron" 


the  side  or  jamb  of  the  window  shown  in  Fig.  304,  Here,  A  is  a 
section  through  the  vertical  studding  at  the  sides  of  the  rough  open- 
ing, B  is  the  outside  architrave  with  the  molding  C  attached  to  it, 
F  is  the  outside  boarding,  G  is  the  building  paper,  and  E  is  the  wall 
covering  of  clapboards  or  shingles. 

The  outside  architrave  B  is  nailed  at  one  side  directly  into  the 
studding,  and  at  the  other  side  it  is  ploughed  so  as  to  join  into  another 
piece  called  the  "pulley  stile,"  the  purpose  of  which  will  be  explained 
later.  This  pulley  stile  must  be  placed  at  least  2|  inches  from  the 
studding  A,  leaving  a  space  marked  H  in  the  figure,  which  is  called 
the  "v/eight  box"  or  "pocket,"  in  which  are  placed  the  weights  for 
operating  the  window.  The  arrangement  of  these  weights  will  be  ex- 
plained in  detail  later.     It  will  be  seen  that  the  width  of  the  outside 


230 


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219 


architrave  B  is  determined  by  the  width  of  the  weight  box  which  it 
has  to  cover.  It  will  also  be  seen  that  the  architrave  B  projects  beyond 
the  pulley  stile  D  by  a  small  amount  at  the  point  marked  K  in  the 
figure.  This  projection  is  usually  about  |  inch  and  is  for  the  accom- 
modation of  the  sashes.  The  purpose  of  the  molding  C  is  to  form 
a  projection  against  which  the  shingling  or  the  clapboards  can  be 
stopped.  The  building  paper  G  should  be  carried  around  as  shown 
and  the  wall  covering  placed  over  it,  so  as  to  thoroughly  cover  the 
joint  between  the  outside  boarding  and  the  molding  C.  This  is  to 
keep  the  weather  from  entering  the  building  through  this  joint.  If 
more  room  is  required  in  the  weight  box  this  may  be  obtained  by 
setting  the  outside  architrave  B  outside  of  the  outside  boarding,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  308.  The  molding  C  may  then  be  dispensed  with  if 
desired,  since  it  is  no  longer  required  as  a  stop  for  the  wall  covering, 
which  can  stop  against  the  edge  of  the  outside  architrave  B. 


Fig.  307.     Section  through  Win- 
dow Jamb 


308.     Another  Form  of  Window- 
Jamb  Construction 


Pulley  Stile.  In  Fig.  307  we  have  seen  that  the  piece  D,  called 
the  pulley  stile,  forms  one  side  of  the  box  where  the  weights  for  the 
window  sashes  are  concealed,  and  that  it  is  fastened  to  the  outside 
architrave  by  a  tongued  and  grooved  joint.  Besides  forming  one 
side  of  the  box  for  the  weights,  the  pulley  stile  acts  as  a  guide  for  the 
sashes,  which  slide  up  and  down  in  grooves  formed  by  the  outside 
architrave,  the  parting  strip,  and  the  stop  bead,  as  is  shown  in  Fig. 
309.  In  this  figure,  which  is  a  section  taken  horizontally  through 
the  window  jamb,  A  is  the  pulley  stile,  which  should  be  1|  inch  thick 
but  may  be  made  |  inch  thick  if  the  windows  are  not  large.  B  is  the 
''parting  strip,"  so  called  because  it  comes  between  the  sashes  and 
separates  them  from  each  other.  It  is  let  into  the  pulley  stile  as 
shown,  and  is  usually  f  inch  thick  and  about  1  inch  wide.  It  must 
extend  the  full  height  of  the  pulley  stile.  K  is  the  "stop  bead,"  so 
called  because  it  comes  in  front  of  the  inside  sash  and  holds  it  in 


231 


220 


CARPENTRY 


place,  forming  one  side  of  the  groove  in  which  the  sash  slides.  The 
other  side  of  the  groove  is  formed  by  the  parting  strip,  as  shown  in 
the  figure.  The  stop  bead  is  really  a  part  of  the  inside  finish,  and  is 
usually  made  of  hard  wood.  It  is  screwed  in  place  so  that  it  can  be 
easily  removed,  and  when  it  has  been  taken  out  the  sashes  them- 
selves can  be  removed  also.  The  stop  bead  must  be  wide  enough  to 
go  a  little  past  the  edge  of  the  pulley  stile  and  lap  over  onto  the  piece 
L,  which  is  a  part  of  the  inside  finish  called  the  "inside  architrave.'* 
The  stop  bead  thus  covers  the  joint  between  the  outside  and  the 
inside  finish.  In  Fig.  309  it  will  be  seen  that  the  outside  architrave 
C,  the  parting  strip  B,  the  stop  bead  K,  and  the  pulley  stile  A, 
together  form  a  sort  of  pocket  about  the  edges  of  the  sashes  HH, 
in  which  they  slide  up  and  down  freely  but  out  of  which  they  can 
not  fall  either  toward  the  inside  or  toward 
the  outside  of  the  building.  Near  the  top 
of  the  pulley  stile  there  is  cut  in  it  a  mortise 
and  in  the  mortise  is  placed  a  pulley  about 
2  inches  in  diameter,  made  especially  for 
the  purpose. 

A  stout  cord  or  chain  is  attached  to  the 
side  of  the  sash  and  passes  over  the  pulley 
into  the  weight  box,  where  it  is  attached  to 
a  weight  made  of  cast  iron  or  lead  which 
serves  to  balance  the  window  sash  and  make 
it  work  more  easily.  There  are  two  pulleys 
in  the  top  of  the  pulley  stile,  one  for  each  of 
the  sashes.  In  Fig.  310,  which  is  a  view  of  the  upper  part  of  the 
pulley  stile  looking  at  its  edge  from  the  outside,  one  of  the  pulleys  is 
shown  at  A.  This  figure  also  shows  the  top  of  the  pulley  stile  C  let 
into  the  yoke  G  about  |  inch.  This  is  shown  at  B.  It  is  the  usual 
method  of  fastening  the  pulley  stile  at  the  top.  In  the  figure  F  are 
the  upright  studs  at  the  sides  of  the  rough  window  opening,  and  E 
are  the  rough  pieces  which  form  the  top  of  the  rough  opening.  D  is 
the  parting  strip  at  both  the  side  and  the  top  of  the  window  opening. 

In  Fig.  311  is  shown  a  section  taken  vertically  through  the  top 
of  a  window  frame  of  this  type.  A  is  the  yoke,  which  should  be 
1|  inches  to  2  inches  in  thickness;  as  explained  above,  it  should 
be  long  enough  to  pass  over  the  top  of  the  pulley  stile  on  both  sides 


Fig.  309.     Section  Showing 
Pulley  Stile  Construction 


232 


CARPENTRY 


221 


and  allow  this  member  to  be  let  into  it.  The  space  K  between  the 
yoke  and  the  rough  framing  EE  is  filled  with  rough  blocking.  F  is 
an  outside  architrave  similar  in  all  respects  to  that  which  occurs 
at  the  sides  of  the  opening.  It  is  ploughed  to  receive  the  yoke,  as 
shown.  B  is  the  parting  strip,  the  same  size  as  that  on  the  pulley 
stile  described  above,  and  C  is  the  stop  bead.  L  is  the  inside  archi- 
trave. EE  is  the  rough  framing  between  the  studding  at  the  sides 
of  the  opening,  G  is  the  outside  boarding,  and  //  is  the  plastering 
inside,  D  being  what  is  known  as  a  "ground." 

Sill.  In  Fig.  312  is  shown  a  section  taken  vertically  through 
a  window  sill,  showing  the  sill  complete.  Here  A  is  the  sill  itself, 
which  will  be  seen  to  extend  through  the  wall  far  enough  to  receive 


Fig.  310.     View  of  Upper  Part  of 
Pulley  Stile 


Fig.  311.    Vertical  Section  of  Top 
of  Window  Frame 


the  inside  sash  G.  The  top  of  the  sill  is  cut  with  a  slope  downward 
and  outward,  which  is  known  as  a  "wash,"  and  the  purpose  of  which 
is  to  carry  off  the  rain  water  which  may  be  driven  against  the  glass 
of  the  window  and  drip  down  from  there  to  the  sill.  C  is  the  outside 
boarding,  B  is  the  rough  framing,  and  E  is  the  plaster.  D  is  a 
part  of  the  inside  finish  called  the  "stool"  and  F  is  another  piece 
called  the  "apron,"  which  together  cover  up  the  edge  of  the  sill  on 
the  inside.  The  pulley  stile  is  let  into  the  sill  about  |  inch  in  a 
manner  similar  to  that  in  which  it  is  let  into  the  yoke  at  the  top,  and 
the  sill  is  made  long  enough  to  extend  a  little  beyond  the  back  of 
the  pulley  stile  on  both  sides  just  as  is  the  yoke.     Thus  the  two  pulley 


233 


222 


CARPENTRY 


stiles  at  the  sides  and  the  yoke  at  the  top,  together  with  the  sill  at 
the  bottom,  form  a  complete-  frame  called  the  "window  frame," 
which  is  usually  made  up  at  the  mill  and  taken  to  the  building  in  one 
piece,  where  it  is  set  up  in  place  inside  of  the  rough-framed  opening. 
The  slight  rabbet  in  the  sill  shown  at  H  is  intended  for  a  stop  for 
outside  blinds  when  these  are  used.  In  this  case  the  blinds  are  hung 
as  shown  in  Fig.  313,  which  is  a  section  taken  horizontally  through 
the  window  jamb.  A  is  the  outside  architrave,  which  is  placed  in 
this  case  outside  of  the  outside  boarding  B  for  the  purpose  of  receiv- 
ing the  blinds.  It  serves  at  the  same  time  as  a  stop  for  the  wall  cov- 
ering C.    D  is  the  blind,  and  £  is  a  piece  put  in  to  form  the  weight 


Fig.  312.     Section  Showing  Sill 
Construction 


Fig.  313.     Horizontal  Section  through 
Window  Jamb 


box  and  known  as  the  "outside  casing."  This  figure  also  shows  at 
G  a  small  block  which  may  be  inserted  between  the  outside  casing  and 
the  sash  F  in  order  to  fill  up  the  space  and  push  the  sash  nearer  the 
inside  wall  line.  To  this  small  block  a  strip  may  be  nailed  which 
will  take  a  sliding  fly  screen. 

Double=Hung  Sash.  In  Fig.  314  is  shown  a  large-size  section 
through  the  side  or  stile  of  an  ordinary  window  sash,  with  some  of 
the  dimensions  given.  The  same  section  is  ordinarily  used  for  the 
top  rail  of  the  sash,  as  for  the  stiles  at  the  sides,  but  the  bottom  rail 
is  usually  made  heavier.  A  section  through  the  bottom  rail  is  shown 
in  Fig.  315.     In  Fig.  314,  A  is  the  body  of  the  stile,  which  for  ordinary 


234 


RESIDENCE  FOR  MRS.  THOS.  G.  GAGE,  ROGERS  PARK,  CHICAGO,  ILL. 

John  B.  Fischer,  Architect,  Chicago,  111. 

View  Looking  Southeast.    Lower  Story  Cement,  Rough  Sand  Finish;  Second  Story  Finish 

Shingles  Stained  a  Warm  Brown;  Woodwork  around  Windows  and  Gable  Stained  a 

Few  Shades  Darker  than  Shingles;  Roof  Shingles  Stained  a  Dull  Red. 

For  Interiors,  See  Page  2.51. 


Cost  of  House: 

Excavation $    27.50 

Masonry 477  20 

Carpentry. 3,375.10 

Sheet-Metal  Work. 70.00 

Plastering 430.00 

Plumbing  and  Gas  fitting. 450  00 

Heating  (Hot-Water) 449  40 

Tile  Work   (3   Mantels,  and   Bath- 
room Floor) 193.60 

Painting  and  Glazing 313.00 

Hardware 60. 00 

Decorating. 70  00 

Electric  Wiring 80.00 

Electric  and  Gas  Fixtures 83 .  20 

Window  Screens 20.00 

Storm  Sash. 50  00 

Window  Shades 19  00 

Cement  Walk 33.00 

Grading,  Trees  and  Shrubs 73. 00 

Total. $5,163.00 

Built  in  1903. 


m 


m 


nuST  FLC2Dia  PLAN 


RESIDENCE  FOR  MRS.  THOS.  G.  GAGE,  ROGERS  PARK,  CHICAGO.  ILL. 

John  B.  Fischer,  Architect,  Chicago 
The  "Prtroh  Faces  East  toward  T^ako  Michigan. 


v//////. 


SECOND  FLODU  PLAN 
I   t.t.T.'t.f  .t.T.T.'f.y  '■•''* 


CARPENTRY 


223 


good  work  is  made  If  inches  thick  and  2  inches  wide,  not  counting 
the  rabbet  for  the  glass.  This  rabbet  is  shown  at  C  and  is  made  f 
inch  X  f  inch,  which  makes  the  entire  stile  If  inches  X  2f  inches. 
The  portion  shown  at  B  is  molded  in  various  ways,  usually  as  shown. 
The  glass  D  is  held  in  place  by  means  of  small,  triangular  pieces  of 
tin  driven  into  the  sash  outside  of  the  glass,  after  it  has  been  put  in, 
and  then  covered  up  with  putty  as  shown  at  C.  The  bottom  rail 
shown  in  Fig.  315  differs  from  the  stiles  only  in  size,  being  usually 
3|  inches  wide  instead  of  2|  inches. 

Sashes  are  often  made  thinner  than  If  inches,  but  if  they  are  at 
all  large  they  are  likely  not  to  stand  well  but  will  warp  and  twist. 
For  very  large  windows  the  sashes  should  be  made  thicker  still, 
being  in  this  case  2  inches  or  even  2|  inches  thick. 


Fig.  314.   Section  through       Fig.  315.   Section  through        Fig.  316.     Section  through  Meet- 
Window  Stile  Bottom  Rail  ing   Rails    of  Window 


Upper  and  Lower  Sash.  Double-hung  sashes  are  divided  into 
two  parts,  one  called  the  "upper  sash"  and  the  other  the  "lower 
sash,"  which  are  so  arranged  as  to  slide  by  each  other.  They  meet 
at  the  center  of  the  window  opening,  and  at  this  point,  at  the  top  of 
the  lower  sash  and  at  the  bottom  of  the  upper  sash,  is  a  rail  known  as 
the  "meeting  rail."  In  Fig.  316  is  shown  a  section  through  the 
meeting  rails  of  a  window.  The  section  has  been  taken  vertically 
and  shows  the  meeting  rails  at  a  large  scale.  A  is  the  top  rail  of 
the  lower  sash  and  slides  up.  B  is  the  bottom  rail  of  the  upper  sash 
and  slides  down,  the  two  coming  together  in  the  inclined  line  marked 
C.  Each  rail  is  cut  so  that  when  they  come  together  they  will  meet 
in  this  line.     The  thickness  of  the  rails  is  determined  by  the  fact  that 


235 


224 


CARPENTRY 


Fig. 


317.      Another    Form    of 
Meeting  Rail 


the  distance  marked  Z)  is  1  inch,  making  the  entire  thickness  of  the 
rail  B  If  inches  and  the  thickness  of  the  rail  A  If  inches.  The  rail 
A  is  carried  down  below  the  bottom  of  the  rail  B  so  as  to  allow  the 

glass  to  be  puttied  in  as  shown  at  E.  In 
Fig.  317  is  shown  another  method  of  fit- 
ting the  glass  into  the  top  rail  of  the  lower 
sash.  Here  A  is  the  top  rail  of  the  lower 
sash  and  at  E  is  shown  the  method  of 
fitting  the  glass.  As  will  be  seen,  the  rail 
A  is  ploughed  to  a  depth  of  about  |  inch 
and  the  glass  inserted  in  the  opening. 
This  method  allows  the  rail  of  the  lower 
sash  as  well  as  the  rail  of  the  upper  sash 
to  be  only  If  inches  thick.  Fig.  317  also 
shows  another  method  of  constructing 
the  meeting  rails  as  shown  at  C.     Here,  instead  of  meeting  in  a 

straight  line  as  in  Fig.  316,  there  is  a  slight 
rabbet  made  in  each  rail  so  as  to  give  a 
small  extent  of  horizontal  surface  on  each. 
The  advantage  of  this  method  is  that  it 
prevents  the  sashes  from  slipping  too  far 
past  each  other,  as  they  may  do  if  cut 
as  shown  in  Fig.  316,  especially  after  they 
have  become  a  little  worn. 

At  the  corners,  where  the  horizontal 
rails  meet  the  vertical  stiles,  they  are 
fastened  together  with  a  mortise-and- 
tenon  joint,  the  mortise  being  in  all  cases 
cut  in  the  stiles  and  the  tenon  made  on 
the  ends  of  the  rails.  This  is  shown  in 
Fig.  318  where  at  A  is  the  joint  between 
the  top  rail  and  the  stile,  and  at  B  the 
joint  between  the  meeting  rail  and  the 
stile.  D  is  the  top  rail  and  E  is  the  stile, 
while  at  H  is  the  tenon  cut  in  the  end 
of  D,  fitting  into  a  mortise  in  E.  F  is  the 
meeting  rail  tenoned  into  the  stile.  It  is  a  common  practice  to 
continue  the  stile  some  distance  below  the  meeting   rail   and   to 


Fig.  318. 


Joint  Between  Stile  and 
Rails 


236 


CARPENTRY 


225 


cut  a  molding  in  the  end  of  it  as  shown  at  C.  This  makes  the  stile 
much  stronger  at  this  otherwise  weak  point.  The  joint  between 
the  bottom  rail  and  the  stile  is  made  in  a  manner  similar  to  that 
shown  at  ^. 

Muntins.  When  there  are  more  than  two  lights  in  a  window 
opening,  the  sashes  must  be  subdivided  and  the  panes  of  glass  made 
smaller,  and  this  subdivision  is  accomplished  by  means  of  pieces 
called  "muntins"  which  are  made  so 
as  to  receive  the  glass  in  the  same 
way  as  do  the  rails  and  stiles.  In  Fig. 
319  is  shown  a  window  sash  divided 
into  lights,  four  in  each  sash,  and  at  A 
is  shown  a  muntin.  In  Fig.  320  is 
shown  a  full-size  section  through  one 
of  these  muntins  showing  the  way  in 
which  it  holds  the  glass.  A  is  the  body 
of  the  muntin,  BB  is  the  glass  on  the 
two  sides  of  it,  held  in  place  by  the 
putty  CC.  The  molding  DD  may  be 
varied  to  suit  the  taste  of  the  designer, 
but  must  be  the  same  as  on  the  rails 
and  stiles. 

Casement  Sash  and  Frames.  The 
frames  and  the  sash  before  described, 
known  as  "double-hung  sash"  or 
"English  sash  with  box  frames,"  are 
those  most  commonly  employed  in  the 
United  States  and  Canada,  but  there  is 
another  kind  of  sash  known  as  "case- 
ment or  French"  sash  which  is  con- 
structed on  a  different  principle  entirely. 
This  sash  is  hinged  at  the  sides  to  the  frame  so  as  to  swing  either  in 
or  out.  The  principal  objection  to  this  arrangement  is  the  difficulty 
of  making  such  a  sash  water-  and  weather-tight.  It  is  also  impossi- 
ble to  use  outside  fly  screens,  if  the  sashes  are  hung  to  swing  out, 
and  if  they  are  hung  to  swing  in,  the  weather  can  penetrate  through 
them  much  more  readily.  In  Fig.  321  is  shown  a  horizontal  section 
through  the  side  or  jamb  of  a  casement  window  in  a  frame  wall.     It 


Fig.  319.     Window  Sash  Showing 
Muntins 


337 


226 


CARPENTRY 


will  be  seen  that  the  outside  architrave  is  similar  to  the  one  which 
was  described  in  connection  with  the  double-hung  window,  and  in 
this  respect  there  is  no  difference  between  the  two.  There  is,  how- 
ever, no  box  for  the  accommodation  of  weights  in  this  case,  as  no 
weights  are  required.  The  outside  architrave  is  made  in  a  way 
slightly  different  from  any  which  have  been  illustrated  before,  but 
this  method  is  equally  well  adapted  for  use  with  the  other  type  of 
window.  As  shown  at  H  it  is  made  in  two  pieces,  H  being  per- 
fectly plain  and  the  molded  piece  K  worked  out  of  smaller  stuff  and 
fastened  on  to  it.  It  will  be  noted  that  the  piece  K  is  rabbeted 
slightly  and  that  the  end  of  the  piece  H  fits  into  the  rabbet  in  such 


Fig.  320.    Section  through  Muntin 


Fig.  321.   Horizontal  Section  through 
Jamb  of  Casement  Window 


a  way  that  the  joint  between  the  two  pieces  is  hidden  from  the  front, 
and  may  open  a  little  without  being  noticed. 

In  the  figure,  A  A  are  the  studs  at  the  sides  of  the  opening,  I 
is  the  outside  boarding  and  J  is  the  plastering  on  the  inside.  B  is 
the  frame  for  the  casement  window,  which  in  this  case  is  made  very 
thick,  2j  to  2f  inches  in  thickness,  rabbeted  |  inch,  as  shown  at  E, 
to  receive  the  sash  C.  The  sash  itself  is  rabbeted  and  a  groove  is  cut 
vertically  in  it,  as  shown,  in  order  that  any  rain  water  which  may  pene- 
trate the  joint  at  E  may  be  stopped  and  may  run  down  the  groove 
to  the  sill  without  getting  inside.  D  is  the  stop  bead  and  (r  is  a 
block  which  receives  the  inside  architrave  F.  The  sash  is  hinged 
at  the  point  E  and  swings  out.     In  Fig.  322  is  shown  another  method 


238 


CARPENTRY 


227 


of  constructing  a  casement  window  so  that  the  sash  will  swing  out- 
ward. In  this  case  the  sash  is  placed  much  nearer  the  outside  of 
the  frame  and  the  frame  is  made  much  lighter  than  in  the  design 
shown  above.  The  frame  B  is  made  from  stuff  only  If  inches  thick 
and  is  made  wide  enough  to  extend  in  to  the  plaster  line,  thus  doing 
away  with  the  block  G  in  Fig.  321.  The  stop  bead  D  is  also  omitted. 
The  frame  B  is  rabbeted  near  the  outside  edge  to  a  depth  of  about 
f  inch  to  receive  the  sash  C  and  an  extra  groove  is  cut  in  the  frame 
to  receive  a  half-round  molding  cut  in  the  edge  of  the  sash.  This 
arrangement  is  to  keep  out  the  weather.  The  sash  C  is  If  inches 
thick  and  2f  inches  wide.     There  are,  of  course,  many  other  ways 


Fig.  322.  Another  Form  of  Casement 
Window  Construction 


Fig.  323.     Vertical  Section  through 
Sill  of  Casement  Window 


of  constructing  these  frames  and  sashes  which  are  more  or  less  elabo- 
rate, according  as  the  work  is  intended  to  be  cheap  or  good.  The 
designs  shown  are  suitable  for  ordinary,  good  work  and  may  be  sim- 
plified for  cheap  work. 

Fig.  323  shows  a  section  taken  vertically  through  the  sill  of  a 
window  of  the  casement  type,  which  opens  out.  A  is  the  rough 
piece  which  forms  the  bottom  of  the  rough  opening,  B  is  the  out- 
side boarding,  C  is  the  plastering.  D  is  the  sill,  and  E  is  the  sash. 
F  and  G  are  the  inside  finish  which  cover  up  the  rough  sill  D.  It 
will  be  seen  that  the  sill  D  is  ploughed  on  the  under  side  to  receive 
shingles,  as  was  the  sill  of  the  double-hung  window.  It  is  rabbeted 
on  the  top  to  receive  the  sash  E,  and  rabbeted  again  under  the  sash 


239 


228 


CARPENTRY 


so  that  there  will  be  less  chance  that  the  drippings  from  the  sash  will 
be  driven  into  the  inside  by  the  wind.     The  under  edge  of  the  sash 


Fig.  324.     Another  Type  of  Sill 
Construction 


Fig.    325.       Horizontal    Section   of 
Casement  Window  Opening  In 


is  also  ploughed  as  shown  at  H  in  order  to  catch  these  drippings  if 
they  are  blown  in.     This  sill  is  for  a  sash  which  is  placed  near  the 


Fig.  326.     Another  Construction 
Similar  to  Fig.  325. 


Fig.  327.  Vertical  Section  Through 

Bottom  of  Casement  Window 

Opening  In 


outside  of  the  frame,  while  Fig.  324  shows  a  sill  suitable  for  a  sash 
placed,  as  shown  in  Fig.  321,  nearer  the  inside  of  the  frame.  In 
this  figure,  E  is  the  sash  and  D  is  the  sill. 


240 


CARPENTRY 


229 


The  casement  windows  so  far  described  are  for  sashes  which 
are  made  to  open  out,  but  casements  are  also  made  to  open  in.  Fig. 
325  shows  a  horizontal  section  through  the  jamb  of  such  a  window 
frame  and  sash.  A  is  the  sash  with  a  half-round  fitting  into  a  mor- 
tise in  the  frame  which  is  rabbeted  as  well  to  receive  the  sash.  B 
is  the  frame,  the  sash  being  placed  on  the  inner  edge  of  the  frame. 
Another  method  of  forming  the  frame  is  shown  in  Fig.  326.  Here, 
as  in  Fig.  325,  A  is  the  sash,  and  B  is  the  frame  which  is  ploughed 
as  shown  at  C.     This  allows  the  sash  to  be  made  without  the  tenon 

shown  in  Fig.  325  and  is,  there-    ■ 

fore,  cheaper  and  easier  to  make 
as  regards  the  sash  without  being 
any  more  expensive  as  regards 
the  frame.  The  hinges  in  this 
case  come  at  the  point  marked 
D  and  they  would  come  in  the 
same  position  in  Fig.  325.  In 
Fig.  327  is  shown  a  vertical  sec- 
tion through  the  bottom  of  a 
casement  window  opening  in.  It 
will  be  seen  that  the  sill  B  differs 
but  little  from  the  other  sills 
shown  before.  It  is  rabbeted  on 
the  inside  for  the  reception  of  the 
sash  A,  and  at  C  is  shown  a 
special  drip  piece  which  is  let 
into  the  sash  and  which  is 
ploughed  on  the  bottom  so  as  to 
receive  any  drops  of  water  which 
may  be  blown  under  it  by  the 
wind.  All  casement  sashes  opening  in  should  be  provided  with 
something  of  the  kind. 

Transoms.  It  is  often  desirable  to  separate  the  lights  of  a  win- 
dow, whether  it  is  a  double-hung  window  or  one  of  the  casement 
type,  by  means  of  a  horizontal  division  called  a  "transom."  In 
this  case  the  additional  light  which  comes  above  the  transom  is  in 
the  nature  of  an  extension  to  the  window  proper,  and  it  is  usually 
hung  in  a  different  way,  sometimes  being  made  stationary  so  as  not 


Fig.  328.    Elevation  of  Double-Hung  Window 
with  Transom 


241 


230 


CARPENTRY 


to  be  allowed  to  open  at  all.  Fig.  328  shows  a  double-hung  window 
with  a  transom  and  a  transom  sash.  A  is  the  transom,  B  is  the 
transom  light,  C  is  the  upper  sash  of  the  window  proper,  D  the  lower 
sash,  and  E  is  the  meeting  rail.  In  Fig.  329  is  shown  a  casement 
window  with  a  transom,  A  being  the  transom,  B  the  transom  light, 
CC  the  two  lights  of  the  window  proper  which  are  hinged  at  the 
sides,  and  D  the  meeting  stile.  As  no  description  of  the  meeting 
stile  for  casement  windows  has  yet  been  given,  a  section  through 
the  stile  is  shown  in  Fig.  330.    The  bead  at  A  A  may  be  omitted 

""   if  desired  and  the  stiles  may  be 


made  plain.  This,  of  course, 
cheapens  the  construction  some- 
what. 

A  transom  for  a  double-hung 
window  must  combine  two  mem- 
bers, namely,  a  headpiece  for  the 
window  proper,  and  a  sill  for  the 
transom  sash  to  stop  against. 
These  properties  determine  the 
construction  of  the  transom.  In 
Fig.  331  is  shown  a  section  taken 
vertically  through  the  transom  of 
a  double-hung  window,  and  it  will 
be  seen  that  the  two  members 
have  been  provided  for.  A  is 
the  sill  for  the  transom  sash, 
which  is  shown  at  C,  while  B  is 

Fig.  329.     Casement  Window  with  Transom     ^he  head  jamb  fof  the  main  wiu- 

dow  frame,  the  upper  sash  being  shown  at  0.  The  piece  D  is  in  line 
with  the  outside  casing  of  the  window  at  the  jambs,  and  E  is  the 
stop  bead  which  is  in  line  with  the  stop  bead  at  the  sides.  The 
space  marked  H  is  filled  with  blocking.  G  is  the  window  stool  on 
the  inside  and  F  is  the  finished  face  of  the  transom  on  the  inside. 

In  Fig.  332  is  shown  a  section  taken  vertically  through  the 
transom  of  a  casement  sash  such  as  is  shown  in  Fig.  329.  It  will 
be  seen  that  this  transom  differs  somewhat  from  the  transom  shown 
in  Fig.  331,  the  head  for  the  casement  frame  being  quite  different 
from  the  head  for  a  double-hung  window  frame. 


242 


CARPENTRY 


231 


In  this  figure,  A  is  the  top  rail  of  the  lower  part  of  the  window, 
that  is,  of  the  casement  sash  itself,  while  D  is  the  bottom  rail  of  the 
transom  sash  which  forms  the  upper  part  of  the  window.     At  H  is 
shown  a  small  groove  in  the  top   rail, 
which   is    intended  to  catch  any  water 
which  may  be  driven  through  the  open- 
ing between  the  sash  and  the  frame  dur- 
ing heavy  rains.     This  groove  should  be 
deeper  at  one  end  of  the  top  rail  than  it 
is  at  the  other  end,  so  that  the  water 

will  flow  away  toward  the  side  and  be  carried  down  to  the  sill,  which 
will  throw  it  outward.  E  is  the  stop  bead  immediately  inside  of  the 
casement  sash.  B  is  the  piece  which  forms  the  head  of  the  case- 
ment frame,  and  is  the  same  in  outline  as  the  pieces  which  form  the 
jambs.  On  top  of  the  piece  B  is  the  sill  C  of  the  transom  frame,  and 
the  two  are  placed  close  together  so  as  to  form  really  one  solid  tran- 


Fig.  330.  ^Section  through  Casement 
Meeting  Stiles 


Fig.  331.     Vertical  Section  through 
Transom  of  Double-Hung  Window 


Fig.  332.     Section  through  Transom 
of  Casement  Window 


som.  The  sill  piece  is  made  with  a  wash  on  top,  the  slope  of  which 
should  be  about  2  inches  to  the  foot,  and  on  top  of  the  sill  piece  comes 
the  lower  rail  of  the  transom  sash  D.  The  piece  i^  is  a  stop  bead 
carried  across  the  frame  on  the  inside  just  above  the  sill  piece  for 
the  transom  sash  to  stop  against  in  case  it  is  hinged  at  the  top  to 
swing  outward,   or  to  receive  the  hinges  in   case   it  is  hinged  at 


243 


232 


CARPENTRY 


the  bottom  to  swing  inward.  The  latter  arrangement  is  the  most 
common  one.  The  piece  G  forms  the  inside  finish  of  the  transom 
bar  and  may  be  treated  in  any  way  desired. 

MuUions.  In  Fig.  333  is  shown  a  double-hung  window  which 
is  in  two  parts  with  a  mullion  between  them.  The  mullion  is  shown 
at  A.  The  window  shown  also  has  two  transom  sashes  with  a  mul- 
lion between  the  sashes  BB  and  the  mullion  at  C.     The   mullions 


Fig.  333.     Double-Hung  Window  in  Two  Parts  with  Mullion  Between 

A  and  C  are  usually  made  8  or  9  inches  wide,  so  as  to  provide  space 
for  the  weight  boxes  in  the  thickness  of  the  mullion.  Fig.  334  shows 
a  section  taken  horizontally  through  the  mullion  A,  with  spaces 
for  the  weights  at  DD  and  with  a  strip  E  to  separate  the  two  weight 
boxes.  FF  are  the  two  pulley  stiles,  made  in  the  usual  way  as 
described  above,  with  parting  beads  at  GG  and  the  sashes  at  HH. 
K  is  the  piece  which  forms  the  outside  finish  of  the  mullion  and  helps 


244 


CARPENTRY 


233 


to  form  the  enclosed  weight  boxes,  with  the  pulley  stiles  grooved 

into  it  as  shown.    The  piece  L  forms  the  inside  finish  of  the  mullion 

and  the  inside  wall  of  the 

weight  boxes  and  may  be 

made  very  plain    or   very 

elaborate  to  suit  the  taste 

of  the  designer.     It  may  be 

treated  with  sinkagesorwith 

raised  moldings  and  varied 

to  almost  any  extent.  MM 

are  the  stop  beads  which 

hold  in  the  sashes  and  serve  also  to  cover  the  joint  between  the 

pieces  FF  and  the  piece  L. 

In  Fig.  335  is  shown  a  casement  window  with  a  mullion.     The 


Fig.  334.  Horizontal  Section  through  Mullion  of 
Fig.   333. 


Fig.  335.     Casement  Window  with  Mullion 

muUion  is  seen  at  ^.  It  will  be  noticed  that  it  is  much  narrower 
than  the  mulhon  used  in  the  case  of  the  double-hung  window  shown 
in  Fig.  333,  the  reason  for  this  being  that  in  the  case  of  the  casement 


245 


234 


CARPENTRY 


Fig.  336.     Mullion  Construction  for  Fig.  335 


window  there  are  no  weights  to  be  taken  care  of  and  so  there  need 
not  be  any  weight  boxes  in  the  thickness  of  the  mulHon. 

BB  are  the  casement  sashes  which  are  in  this  case  filled  with 
leaded  glass.     They  should  be  hinged  at  the  sides  to  open  inward 

or  outward  stopping  against  the 
mullion.  In  Fig.  336  is  show^n 
a  section  taken  horizontally 
through  the  mullion  A,  showing 
its  construction.  The  sashes 
are  shown  at  CC  and  are 
intended  to  open  out.  They 
are  grooved  to  prevent  the  rain 
water  from  penetrating  to  the 
inside  and  are  rabbeted  so  as  to  further  keep  out  the  weather. 
The  mullion  itself  is  shown  at  D.  It  is  built  up  out  of  three  pieces 
which  may  be  molded  to  suit  the  taste,  but  there  must  always  be  a 
rabbet  for  the  sash  to  stop  against.  E  is  the  piece  which  forms  the 
inside  finish  of  the  mullion  and  FF  are  the  stop  beads. 

Windows  in  Brick  Walls.  Windows  in  brick  or  other  masonry 
walls  are  in  every  respect  similar  to  windows  in  frame  walls,  the  only 
difference  being  in  the  arrangement  of  the  jambs,  heads,  and  sills. 

Fig.  337  shows  a  section  taken 
horizontally  through  the  jamb  of 
a  double-hung  window  in  a  brick 
wall.  At  A  is  shown  a  section 
through  the  wall  itself.  It  will 
be  seen  that  there  is  a  sort  of 
rabbet  made  in  the  back  part  of 
the  wall  in  which  to  set  the  win- 
dow frame,  and  that  the  front 
portion  of  the  wall  projects  in 
front  of  the  frame.  This  is  done 
in  order  that  there  may  be  a 
certain  amount  of  solid  masonry 
which  will  cover  the  joint  between  the  wall  and  the  frame  and 
prevent  the  wind  from  driving  in  between  them  through  this  joint. 
The  distance  B  is  called  the  "reveal"  of  the  window,  and  is  usually 
made  4   inches,    but   is    sometimes   8   inches.     The   depth   of   the 


Fig.  337.     Horizontal  Section  through  Jamb 
of  Double-Hung  Window  in  Brick  Wall 


246 


CARPENTRY 


235 


rabbet  in  which  the  frame  sets  may  vary  considerably,  but  is 
usually  2  to  4  inches. 

From  the  face  of  the  brick  reveal  to  the  face  of  the  pulley  stile  D 
the  distance  C  may  be  made  anything,  according  to  taste,  but  is 
best  made  about  2  inches.  The  pulley  stile  D  is  made  in  the  same 
way  as  for  windows  in  frame  walls.  E  is  the  outside  casing,  which 
sets  as  close  as  possible  against  the  brickwork,  and  6r  is  a  piece 
called  the  "back  lining,"  which  forms  the  back  of  the  weight  box. 
In  all  other  respects  the  construction  is  the  same  as  described  for 
windows  in  frame  walls.  At  H  is  shown  an  inside  sash  which  can 
be  put  on  in  winter  for  additional  protection  against  the  cold.  It 
is  usually  made  as  a  casement  sash  to  open  in.  As  will  be  seen,  it 
is  hung  on  a  rabbeted  piece  K,  which  also  forms  the  jamb  lining  of 
the  window  on  the  inside  and 
receives  the  inside  architrave 
which  is  indicated  at  L.  M  is 
the  furring  on  the  inside  of  the 
brick  wall  and  N  is  the  plaster- 
ing. The  space  0  is  filled  with 
rough  blocking,  and  the  space  P 
should  be  well  caulked  with 
oakum,  or  other  substance,  to 
keep  out  the  cold.  P  is  a  piece 
called  a  "brick  mold"  or  some- 
times, a  "staff  bead,"  which  is 
put  in  to   cover   up   the   joint, 

between  the  frame  and  the  brick.  It  may  be  of  any  desired  form, 
being  sometimes  made  a  simple  square  block  or  strip  on  which  the 
window  blinds  are  hung. 

Fig,  338  shows  a  section  taken  vertically  through  the  head  of 
a  double-hung  window  in  a  brick  wall.  At  A  is  the  masonry  lintel 
which  covers  the  masonry  opening.  It  is  usually  of  stone.  The 
distance  B  is  the  same  as  the  distance  B  in  Fig.  337  and  the  distance 
C  is  also  the  same  as  the  corresponding  distance  in  Fig.  337.  D  is 
the  yoke,  the  same  as  for  a  window  in  a  frame  wall,  with  the  outside 
casing  E  and  the  staff  bead  F.  G  is  the  wood  Hntel  which  is  usually 
placed  behind  the  stone  lintel  over  the  masonry  opening.  This  sec- 
tion also  shows  an  inside  or  winter  sash  at  H,  the  same  as  in  Fig. 


Fig.  338.  Section  through  Head  of  Double- 
Hung  Window 


247 


236 


CARPENTRY 


337,  with  the  piece  K  arranged  to  receive  it  and  also  to  receive  the 
edge  of  the  inside  architrave  L.  M  is  the  furring  on  the  masonry 
wall,  and  N  is  the  lathing  and  plastering,  the  plastering  being  cov- 
ered by  the  architrave  L. 

Fig.  339  shows  a  section  taken  vertically  through  the  sill  of  a 
double-hung  window  in  a  brick  wall.  A  is  the  stone  sill  in  the 
outside  of  the  masonry  wall,  and  should  be  wide  enough  to  extend 
into  the  wall  and  under  the  wood  sill  far  enough  to  allow  the 
latter  to  lap  over  it  about  2  inches.  The  wood  sill,  shown  at  B,  is 
usually  made  wide  enough  to  receive  the  staff  bead,  so  that  the  width 
of  the  stone  sill  needs  to  be  about  the  same  as  the  depth  of  the  reveal 
at  the  jambs,  or  the  stone  lintel  at  the  head  of  the  window.  The 
sill  B  rests,  on  the  inside,  on  a  piece  of  rough  timber  built  into  the 
wall,  as  shown  at  D  in  the  figure.    The  sill  should  have  a  "wash," 

or  slope  outward  and  downward, 
of  about  1^  inches  to  the  foot.  In 
the  figure,  C  is  the  lower  rail  of 
the  lower  sash  of  the  window, 
which  must  stop  against  the  sill 
and  be  made  tight  in  some  way. 
The  figure  shows  both  the  sill 
and  the  sash  rabbeted,  but  very 
often  the  sash  is  not  rabbeted. 
The  piece  E  forms  the  finish  on 
the  inside  corresponding  to  the 
stop  bead  at  the  jambs  and  head,  and  serves  to  cover  up  the  rough 
sill.  The  piece  F  also  serves  the  same  purpose.  L  is  the  rough  brick 
wall  with  the  furring  at  M  and  the  plastering  and  lathing  at  N, 
and  the  space  between  the  rough  sill  and  the  plastering  is  covered 
and  finished  by  the  piece  G,  or  the  stool.  Underneath  the  stool  is 
placed  the  apron,  as  shown  in  the  figure  at  H. 

Outside  Door  Frames.  Outside  doors  are  usually  made  heavier 
and  thicker  than  inside  doors,  and,  therefore,  the  frames  for  them 
must  be  different  from  the  frames  for  inside  doors  even  in  frame 
buildings,  and  in  buildings  of  brick  or  stone  they  are  necessarily 
different  from  the  inside  door  frames  on  account  of  being  set  in  the 
masonry  walls,  while  the  inside  door  frames  are  usually  set  in  wood 
walls.     The  interior  partitions  of  large  buildings,  however,  are  fre- 


Fig.  339.  Vertical  Section  through  Sill 
in  Brick  Construction 


248 


CARPENTRY 


237 


quently  made  of  terra  cotta  blocks  or  of  plaster  on  wire  lath,  but 
the  door  frames  which  may  be  used  in  these  cases  are  essentially 
the  same  as  those  used  for  openings  in  stud  walls. 

The  jambs  and  head  of  the  frame,  if  in  a  building  of  wood  con- 
struction, are  usually  made  of  plank  from  If  inches  to  2|  inches 
thick.  As  the  doors  to  private  houses  generally  open  inward,  the 
frames  must  be  rabbeted  on  the  inside  edge  to  receive  the  door,  and 
should  also  be  rabbeted  on  the  outer  edge  to  receive  a  screen  door 
in  summer.  The  inner  edge  of  the  frame  is  set  flush  with  the  plaster 
line  in  the  inside  so  as  to  receive  an  architrave,  the  same  as  in  the  case 
of  a  window  frame. 


Fig.    340.        Section    of    Outside  Fig.  341.     Another  Outside  Door  Frame 


Door  Frame 


Construction 


Fig.  340  shows  an  outside  door  frame  for  a  wood  building.  AA 
are  the  studs  which  form  the  rough  opening,  the  section  being  taken 
horizontally  through  the  door  jamb.  B  is  the  outside  boarding  and 
C  is  the  lathing  and  plastering  which  is  carried  on  the  inside  of  the 
studding. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  frame  E  extends  in  width  from  the  out- 
side of  the  boarding  to  the  inside  of  the  plaster,  and  receives  on  its 
outer  edge  the  outside  casing  F,  and  on  its  inner  edge  the  inside  archi- 
trave G.  D  is  a  ground  for  the  plastering,  and  H  is  the  door  itself, 
fitting  into  a  rabbet  cut  in  the  frame,  about  |  inch  deep  and  the 


249 


238 


CARPENTRY 


thickness  of  the  door.  K  is  the  screen  door  for  which  a  rabbet  is  cut 
in  the  outside  edge  of  the  frame. 

A  similar  arrangement  is  shown  in  Fig.  341.  There  is  no  rabbet 
cut  in  the  frame  shown  in  this  figure,  the  screen  door  being  designed 
to  hang  on  the  edge  of  the  outside  casing,  as  indicated,  the  casing 
being  made  thicker  in  order  to  receive  the  door.  This  figure  is  let- 
tered the  same  as  Fig.  340. 

The  section  taken  vertically  through  the  head  of  the  door  frame 
would  be  the  same  as  the  section  through  the  jamb,  but  the  section 
taken  through  the  sill  would  be  different.  Fig.  342  shows  such  a 
section.  Here,  A  is  the  sill  which  forms  a  part  of  the  rough  fram- 
ing of  the  building,  and  rests  on  the  foundation  walls,  receiving  the 
joists  which  are  shown  in  the  figure  at  B.    L  is  the  line  of  the  outside 


Fig.  342.     Section  through  Sill  of 
Door  Frame 


Fig.  343.     Another  Type  of  Construc- 
tion for  a  Door  Sill 


boarding,  C  is  the  under  flooring,  and  D  is  the  finished  flooring.  On 
top  of  the  under  flooring  is  placed  the  door  sill  E,  which  is  cut  out 
of  plank  about  If  to  2^  inches  thick,  with  a  wash  on  the  outside  like 
a  window  sill,  and  with  the  top  placed  about  f  inch  above  the  fin- 
ished floor  so  as  to  allow  the  door  F  to  swing  inward  over  any  rug 
or  carpet  which  may  be  laid  on  this  floor.  The  sill  is  a  little  wider 
than  the  distance  from  the  inside  of  the  inside  architrave,  to  the 
outside  of  the  outside  casing.  The  line  H  is  the  line  of  the  porch 
floor,  if  there  is  any  perch,  or  there  may  be  a  step  with  the  face  as 
indicated  by  the  line  K.     G  represents  a  screen  door. 

Fig.  343  shows  another  type  of  door  sill  which  is  more  simple 
in  construction  and  less  expensive  than  that  shown  in  Fig.  342. 


250 


East  End  of  Living  Room 

The  Mantel  is  Faced  with  Green  TJnglazed  Tile.     Flat-Sawed  Oak  Finish,  Stained  Brown  and 
Waxed ;  Plaster  Work,  Rough  Sand  Finish  Painted. 


■ 

1^ 

J 

■ 

1 

^^^^■I^^^Ih 

■ 

1 

1 

Bi  "'"'* 

H 

ISSSSt^^^^ 

, A  A^^^^^^^^^^^H 

m 

ff^^ 

BSfltf^^^Ek^' 

m 

1 

West  End  of  Living  Room 
RESIDENCE  FOR  MRS.  THOS.  G.  GAGE.  ROGERS  PARK,  CHICAGO,  ILL. 

John  B.  Fischer,  Architect,  Chicago 
For  Plans  and  Exteriors,  See  Page  234. 


CARPENTRY 


239 


Instead  of  being  shaped  to  receive  the  door,  as  is  the  sill  shown  in 
Fig.  342,  it  is  cut  square,  with  a  slight  wash  only,  and  on  top  of  it  is 
placed  a  saddle  under  the  door.  In  Fig.  343  A  is  the  rough  sill  of 
the  framework  resting  on  the  foundation  walls;  BB  are  blocks  to 
receive  the  ends  of  the  flooring  C  on  top  of  which  is  the  finished  floor- 
ing D.  The  top  of  the  sill  E  is  flush  with  the  top  of  this  finished 
flooring,  and  the  saddle  M  covers  the  joint  between  the  two,  being 
beveled  as  shown  at  both  sides.  F  is  the  door,  and  at  G  is  the  out- 
side screen  door.  As  before,  H  is  the  level  of  the  veranda,  if  there 
is  one,  and  K  is  the  face  of  the  riser  of  a  step  which  may  be  placed 
under  the  sill  on  the  outside.  L  is  the  line  of  the  outside  boarding. 
Inside  Door  Frames.  Inside  door  frames  are  in  some  respects 
similar  to  the  outside  door  frames  described  above,  but  as  they  are 
intended  for  the  lighter  interior  doors,  they  are  not  made  so  heavy 
as  are  the  outside  frames.  Fig. 
344  shows  a  section  taken  hori- 
zontally through  the  jamb  of  an 
interior  door  frame,  the  same 
section  also  serving  for  a  section 
through  the  head  of  the  frame 
taken  vertically  since  the  two 
sections  will  be  the  same.  In 
this  figure,  A  A  are  the  studs  in 
the  partition  at  the  side  of  the 
door  opening,  and  forming  the  rough  framing  for  the  opening.  BB  are 
the  grounds  for  the  plaster  C  to  stop  against,  and  these  grounds,  of 
course,  go  all  around  the  door  opening,  on  both  sides,  and  across  the 
top.  D  is  the  finished  door  jamb,  the  head  being  exactly  the  same 
in  section.  The  jambs  are  usually  made  1|  inches  thick,  but  some- 
times only  I  inch.  F  is  the  door  itself,  shown  If  inches  thick, 
although  closet  doors  are  frequently  made  of  less  thickness  than 
this,  and  some  heavy  doors  might  be  thicker.  At  one  side  of  the 
frame  the  door  is  hinged,  the  hinge  being  fastened  partly  to  the  edge 
of  the  door,  and  partly  to  the  frame,  but  at  the  other  side  of  the 
frame  there  must  be  something  provided  to  form  a  stop  for  the  door. 
There  are  several  methods  of  applying  the  "stop,"  one  of  which  is 
shown  at  E  in  the  figure.  It  is  fastened  to  the  jamb,  but  is  in  the 
form  of  a  separate  piece.     The  stop  is  carried  all  around  the  door 


Fig.  344.  Horizontal  Section  through  Jamb 
of  Interior  Door  Frame 


251 


240 


CARPENTRY 


Fig.  345.     Another  Door  Frame  Construction 


opening,  and  is  usually  set  back  from  the  edge  of  the  jamb  on  both 
sides  by  an  amount  equal  to  the  thickness  of  the  door,  so  that  the 
door  can  be  hung  at  either  edge  of  the  jambs,  or  at  either  side  of  the 
partition.  The  final  finish  of  the  door  opening  is  the  "architrave" 
or  "casing,"  which  is  shown  at  GG.    This  must  be  at  least  wide 

enough  to  extend  from  the  edge 
of  the  jamb  over  onto  the  plaster 
g  so  as  to  cover  the  joint  entirely. 
Another  method  of  making  the 
door  frame  is  shown  in  Fig.  345. 
Here,  the  frame  is  rabbeted  to 
form  a  place  for  the  door,  and 
there  is  no  need  of  a  stop.  Such  a 
frame  is  usually  made  thicker 
than  the  one  shown  in  Fig.  344, 
and  is  rabbeted  to  a  depth  of  |  inch,  and  the  thickness  of  the  door. 
The  principal  objection  to  this  method  is  that  at  the  head  of  the 
door,  which  is  rabbeted  the  same  as  is  the  jamb,  the  part  of  the 
frame  which  shows  above  the  door  itself  is  greater  on  one  side  of 
the  door  than  it  is  on  the  other.  Therefore,  unless  all  the  doors  in 
a  room  open  into  that  room,  or  all  of  them  out  from  the  room,  they 
will  not  line  with  each  other  at  the  head.  For  this  reason  it  is 
better,  to  use  some  form  of  frame  with  a  separate  stop  planted  onto 
it,  or  a  frame  rabbeted  on  both  sides. 

The  lettering  in  Fig.  345  is  the  same  as  in  Fig.  344,  and  need 

not  be  explained  again. 

The  only  finish  about  a  door 
frame  with  the  exception  of  the 
door  itself,  is  the  architrave  or 
the  trim  as  it  is  sometimes 
called.  It  is  also  called  casing. 
This  is  shown  at  G  in  Fig.  344. 
It  may  be  made  of  any  design 
desired,  and  as  wide  as  desired,  it  being  only  necessary  that  it  shall 
cover  the  plaster  ground  B,  and  project  over  onto  the  plaster  C. 
The  architrave  is  usually  worked  out  of  |-inch  stuff,  but  may  be 
made  thicker  as  necessary.  Its  thickness  is  determined  by  the  thick- 
ness of  the  base  or  skirting  in  the  room,  which  base   or  skirting 


Fig.  346. 


Door  Trim  Construction  Showing 
Back  Band 


252 


CARPENTRY  241 

has  to  stop  against  the  architrave  at  each  side  of  the  door 
opening. 

In  Fig.  346,  at  A,  is  shown  what  is  known  as  a  "back  band." 
It  goes  behind  the  architrave,  as  shown,  and  is  used  when  for  any 
reason  it  is  necessary  to  have  the  architrave  set  out  from  the  face 
of  the  plaster.  Its  purpose  is  to  cover  up  the  joint  between  the 
architrave  and  the  plaster  surface.  Of  course  it  may  be  molded  as 
desired.  It  is  usually  made  f  inch  thick  and  as  wide  as  necessary. 
In  Fig.  346  B  is  the  architrave,  C  the  plaster  ground,  D  the  lathing 
and  plastering,  EE  the  studding  in  the  wall,  F  the  door,  G  the  jamb, 
and  H  the  stop.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  stop  H  is  set  into  the 
jamb  G.  This  makes  a  good,  solid  construction,  but  it  is  not  often 
done  on  account  of  the  trouble  and  expense  involved. 

Doors.  The  construction  of  doors  is  essentially  the  same, 
whether  they  are  to  be  used  as  outside  or  as  inside  doors,  the  only 
difference  being  in  the  thickness  of  the  door  and  in  the  finishing  of  it. 
The  most  simple  kind  of  door  is,  of  course,  a  single  piece  of  board, 
with  hinges  at  the  side,  but  this  is  almost  never  satisfactory  for  any 
purpose,  as  it  is  likely  to  warp,  crack,  and  shrink,  and  has  not  suffi- 
cient strength.  It  is  customary  in  every  case  to  build  up  a  frame 
of  comparatively  heavy  pieces  and  then  to  cover  it  over  or  to  fill 
it  in  with  lighter  stuff  in  the  form  of  panels.  In  such  a  framework 
for  a  door,  the  vertical  pieces  are  called  stiles,  and  the  horizontal 
pieces  are  called  rails.  There  are  always  at  least  two  stiles  and  at 
least  two  rails,  a  stile  at  each  side  of  the  door,  and  a  rail  at  top  and 
bottom,  but  there  may  be  more  than  two  of  each  of  these  members. 
The  stiles  usually  extend  the  full  height  of  the  door,  from  top  to 
bottom,  and  the  rails  are  tenoned  into  them.  As  mentioned  above, 
the  number  of  rails  may  be  varied  to  suit  the  conditions,  or  the  taste 
of  the  designer,  so  that  the  door  will  have  many  small  panels,  or  a 
few  larger  ones.  After  the  frame  has  been  built  up  in  this  way,  the 
door  may  be  finished  as  desired,  that  is,  with  sunk  panels  in  the 
spaces  between  the  rails  and  stiles,  or  with  the  framework  covered 
with  sheathing  on  one  or  both  sides  so  as  to  present  a  plain  surface 
without  panels.  Most  of  the  simple,  heavy  doors  for  use  in  incon- 
spicuous positions,  such  as  doors  for  barns  and  outhouses,  gates  on 
walls,  etc.,  are  made  with  only  one  side  covered  with  sheathing  fas- 
tened to  a  rough  frame. 


253 


242 


CARPENTRY 


The  sheathing  is  sometimes  put  on  vertically  or  horizontally, 
but  a  much  stronger  door  is  obtained  if  it  is  put  on  diagonally.  It 
is  possible,  indeed,  to  make  a  satisfactory  door  by  the  use  of  sheath- 
ing alone,  without  any  frame.  The  sheathing  is  put  together  in 
two  thicknesses,  and  diagonally,  but  each  thickness  is  made  diagonal 
in  the  opposite  direction  to  the  other  thickness  so  that  all  the  pieces 
cross  each  other.  Such  a  door  is  shown  in  Fig.  347.  In  Fig.  348 
is  shown  a  door  with  diagonal  sheathing  on  the  outside  of  a  frame- 
work. Fig.  349  shows  a  strong  type  of  door  with  a  braced  frame 
which  is  covered  on  one  or  both  sides  with  vertical  sheathing. 


-' 

:- 

-- 

;- 

\ 

^ 

- 

-- 

s 

- 

l^ 

- 

-' 

- 

Fig.  347.     Double-Diagonal 
Door  Sheathing 


Fig.  348.     Diagonal  Sheathing 
on  Door  Frame 


Fig.  349.     Braced  Door  Frame 
with  Vertical  Sheathing 


There  is  no  difficulty  in  fastening  together  the  simple  doors 
just  described,  but  when  we  come  to  the  paneled  doors,  there  are 
some  special  methods  in  use  for  fastening  the  rails  into  the  stiles  at 
the  corners,  which  must  be  described.  There  are  also  special  ways 
of  building  up  the  members  of  which  the  doors  are  composed,  to 
prevent  warping  and  twisting. 

In  Fig.  350  is  shown  the  most  simple  type  of  door  for  use  in  the 
interior  of  a  building.  It  is  called  a  "four-panel"  door  on  account 
of  the  arrangement  of  the  panels  and  their  number.  The  stiles, 
marked  A  in  the  figure,  are  all  made  not  less  than  4|  inches  in  width. 
The  middle  rail,  marked  B,  is  made  8  inches  wide,  and  the  top  rail  C 


254 


CARPENTRY 


243 


the  same  as  the  stiles.  The  bottom  rail,  marked  D,  is  made  wider 
also,  its  width  being  about  10  inches.     The  panels  are  marked  EE. 

Figs.  351  and  352  show  other  arrangements  of  panels  which 
may  be  employed,  but  the  sizes  are  all  the  same  as  in  Fig.  350.  Of 
course,  the  more  cross  rails  there  are  between  the  top  rail  and  the 
bottom  rail,  the  stronger  will  be  the  door. 

The  point  of  greatest  interest  in  the  construction  of  a  door  is 
the  joint  between  the  top  rail  C  and  the  stiles  A  A.  The  rail  is 
always  tenoned  into  the  stiles,  the  stiles  continuing  all  the  way  up 


^ 

c 

£ 

A 

e 

A 

B 

£ 

A 

£■ 

I> 

A 

c 

A 

E 

B 

E 

B 

1     ^ 

B 

£ 

B 

E 

D 

Fig,  350.     Four-Panel  Door  Fig.  351.     Door  with  Hori-        Fig.  352.     Another  Form  of 

zontal  Panels  Door  Paneling 

to  the  top  edge  of  the  door,  and  this  joint  is  never  made  as  a  mitered 
joint.     Fig.  353  shows  the  tenon  by  dotted  lines. 

It  will  be  seen  that  it  does  not  go  all  the  way  through  the  stile 
of  the  door  but  should  be  stopped  back  about  \  inch,  so  as  not  to 
show  on  the  edge  of  the  door. 

Fig.  354  shows  how  a  door  should  be  constructed,  the  figure 
being  a  section  taken  through  the  stile  of  the  door.  The  entire 
piece  is  built  up  out  of  strips  of  pine  |  inch  thick,  and  of  a  width 
equal  to  the  thickness  of  the  door,  minus  |  inch  for  a  veneering  of 


255 


244 


CARPENTRY 


I  inch  thick  on  each  side  of  the  door.     These  strips  are  carefully 
glued  together,  side  by  side,  thus  forming  the  finished  piece  on  which 

the  veneering  is  applied.  Fig.  354  also 
shows  the  proper  construction  of  a  panel 
at  the  place  where  it  joins  the  stile  or  the 
rail. 

A  piece  marked  A  in  the  figure  is 
first  glued  into  the  stile  or  rail,  and  to 
this  are  glued  the  panel  moldings,  after 
the  panel  has  been  put  in  place,  the 
panel  moldings  projecting  out  beyond 
the  piece  A  far  enough  to  hold  the  panel, 
which  is  thus  left  free  to  move  as  it  shrinks 
or  swells.  The  panel  will  remain  as  a 
plain  surface,  and  will  not  bulge  or 
crack.  The  moldings  should  never  be 
fastened  in  any  way  to  the  panel  itself. 
Unless  the  panel  is  absolutely   free  to 

Fig.  354.    gctjon  JWing   Panel      ^^^^  ^^  -^  ^^^.^  tO  Crack' badly. 


Fig.    353.      Construction   of  Joints 

between  Top  Rail  and  Door 

Stile 


TRIM 

Base  or  Skirting.  The  walls  and  ceilings  of  rooms  in  which 
there  is  no  attempt  made  to  give  an  ornamental  treatment  in  wood- 
work are  ordinarily  finished  in  plaster.     Even  in  the  cheapest  work, 

however,  there  should  be  some  sort  of 
finish  at  the  point  where  the  floor  and  the 
wall  meet,  in  order  to  stop  the  plaster 
and  the  finished  flooring.  This  member 
is  called  the  "base"  or  "skirting"  and 
is  almost  invariably  of  wood.  It  may  be 
of  hard  wood,  or  of  soft  wood  for  painting, 
and  may  be  very  plain  or  very  orna- 
mental. Such  a  base  would  ordinarily 
be  made  out  of  stuff  |  inch  or  1|  inches 
thick,  and  would  be  made  from  8  to 
10  inches  high  above  the  floor.  The 
top  of  this  member  is  usually  molded  in  some  way.  Fig.  355  shows 
such  a  base,  made  very  plain.     It  is  about  8  inches  high,  slightly 


Fig.  355. 


Section  of  Base  Board 
or  Skirting 


356 


CARPENTRY 


245 


molded  at  the  top,  as  shown  at  A  in  the  figure.  The  finished  flooring 
C  passes  under  the  base,  in  which  case  the  flooring  must  be  laid  first, 
but  the  base  may  be  set  in  place  before  the  flooring  is  laid,  and  the 
flooring  stop  against  it,  in  which  case  it  is  necessary  to  place  a  quarter- 
round  molding,  as  shown  at  B  in  the  figure,  to  cover  the  joint  between 
the  two.  E  is  the  plastering  against  which  the  base  sets  and  DD 
are  grounds  of  wood  which  are  nailed  to  the  studding  or  furring 
before  the  lathing  and  plastering  are  done,  so  as  to  provide  something 
to  which  the  base  may  be  nailed.  The  base  should  not,  however,  be 
fastened  at  both  top  and  bottom,  as  it  is  likely  to  crack  if  it  does  not 
have  a  chance  to  swell  and  move  freely  in  one  direction.  The 
plastering  may  be  carried  down  behind  the  place  where  the  base  is 
to  go  or  not,  as  desired.  If  the  plastering  is  carried  down  to  the 
floor,  a  warmer  building  is  obtained 
than  would  be  the  case  if  the  plaster- 
ing were  to  be  stopped  at  the  top  of 
the  base. 

Fig.  356  shows  how  the  base  may 
be  built  up  out  of  two  pieces  so  as  to 
save  material,  the  upper  part  being 
taken  out  of  thicker  stuff  than  the 
lower  part.  If  this  base  were  made 
in  one  piece  it  would  be  necessary  to 
take  the  entire  member  out  of  the 
thick  stuff  and  waste  material  in  the 
lower  portion.  In  this  manner  it  is  pos- 
sible to  build  up  the  base  in  any  shape  desired,  and  to  make  it  of  as 
many  pieces  as  seems  advisable.  A  base  may  be  made  to  any  height 
up  to  12  or  14  inches,  but  these  heights  are  excessive  for  a  base.  If 
it  is  necessary  to  protect  the  wall  up  to  a  greater  height  than  can  be 
covered  by  means  of  a  base,  or  if  an  ornamental  effect  is  desired,  a 
wainscot  is  used. 

Wainscoting.  Whenever  it  is  not  desirable  to  carry  the  plas- 
tering down  to  the  floor,  for  any  reason,  it  is  customary  to  make  use 
of  a  wainscot,  which  is  a  covering  of  woodwork  about  3  or  4  feet 
high,  which  either  goes  on  top  of  the  plaster  or  takes  the  place  of  the 
plaster  on  the  inside  of  the  room.  Such  a  covering  may  be  made 
higher,  up  to  6  or  7  feet,  and  it  is  then  known  as  a  "dado,"  but  the 


Fig.  356.     Section  of  Two-Piece 
Base 


257 


246 


CARPENTRY 


Fig.  357.     V-Shaped  Sheathing 


Fig.  358.     Beaded  Sheathing 


two  names  are  very  loosely  used  and  are  often  confused,  one  with 
the  other. 

The  most  simple  kind  of  wainscot  is  composed  of  matched 

sheathing,  which  may  be  orna- 
mented by  being  beaded,  or  V- 
jointed,  or  center  beaded.  Fig. 
357  shows  a  section  through  a 
few  pieces  of  V-shaped  sheathing  to  illustrate  the  meaning  of  the 
term  "V-joint."     The  sheathing  is  tongued  and  grooved  and  the 

narrow  strips  are  set  up  vertically 

U^        4>r-i        is. <r"^ fijii (JiJ    and  matched  together,  but  each 

strip  has  the   sharp   edges   cut 

away  on  one  side,  so  as  to  form 

in  the  finished  work  a  V-shaped  depression  as  shown  at  A  in  the  figure. 

Fig.  358  shows  a  section  taken  horizontally  through  a  portion 

of  some  beaded  sheathing.     This  sheathing  is  tongued  and  grooved 

in  the  sam  eway  as  is  the  other 
~l     sheathing  described   above,  but 
^     instead  of  being  V-jointed  as  the 
other  is,  it  has  a  bead  worked  on 
each  piece  on  one  edge  only,  as 
shown  at  A.     This  makes  it  more  expensive  than  the 
V-jointed  sheathing  and  much  more  expensive  than  plain 
tongued  and  grooved  sheathing. 

Fig,  359  shows  a  section  through  some  center  beaded 
S'heathing,  where,  in  addition  to  the  bead  A  worked  on 
the  edge  of  each  piece,  a  bead  or  sometimes  two  beads 
are  worked  in  the  center,  as  shown  at  B. 

Fig.  360  shows  a  section  taken  vertically  through  a 

simple  wainscot  composed  of  matched  sheathing  with  a 

base  and  a  cap  mold.     The  sheathing  itself  is  shown  at 

B,  the  plaster  being  at  G,  with  the  sheathing  placed  close 

against  the  plaster  surface.     At  C  is  the  base,  with  the  top 

beveled   to    receive   the    sheathing.      This    method    of 

receiving  the  sheathing  on  a  beveled  top  to  the 

base  is  the  best,  because  dust  and  dirt  will  not 

then  collect  between  the  joints  of  the    sheathing 

Simple  Wainscoting      at  the  bottom,  and  whatever  does  collect  there 


JLA./! lUL 


Fig.  359.     Center-Beaded  Sheathing 


258 


CARPENTRY  247 

can  be  easily  cleaned  away.  At  ^,  is  shown  tne  cap  molding 
which  is  grooved  on  the  bottom  to  allow  the  sheathing  to  fit  up  into 
it.     This  cap  mold  runs  the  full  length  of  the  wainscot  and  stops 

Fig.   361.     Horizontal  Section  through  Another  Kind  of  Wainscoting 

against  the  architraves  around  the  windows,  so  that  its  projection 
can  not  be  greater  than  the  thickness  of  the  architrave  molding, 
and  it  should  be  about  \  inch  less  than  this  thickness. 

In  Fig.  361  is  shown  another  kind  of  wainscoting,  the  section 
being  taken  horizontally  through  a  portion  of  it.     This  form  of 


Fig.  362.       Section  Showing  Paneled  Fig.  363.       Another  Paneled 

Wainscoting  Wainscoting 

wainscoting  is  more  expensive  than  simple  matched  or  beaded 
sheathing,  but  it  is  not  so  expensive  as  is  paneled  work.  It  consists 
of  pieces  called  "battens,"  as  shown  at  C,  with  other  thinner  pieces 
grooved  in  between  them,  as  shown  at  B.  The  battens  may  be 
I  inch  or  1|  inches  in  thickness,  while  the  panels  are  usually  made 
\  inch  thick.  The  width  of  the  various  pieces  depends  upon  the 
design  of  the  wainscoting  which  can  be  altered  to  suit  the  taste  of 
the  designer. 

Fig.  362  shows  the  joint  between  the  panels  and  the  battens  in 
simple  paneled  wainscoting.  In  this  case,  the  battens  C  are  grooved 
as  in  Fig.  361  and  the  panels  B  are 
tongued  into  them. 

In  Fig.  363  is  shown  a  better  way 
to  fasten  in  the  panels  B,  the  piece  A       Fig.  364.    stiii  Another  Form  of 

,     .  .       p  ,1  11,1  Wainscot    Paneling 

bemg  separate  irom  the  panel  and  the 

batten,  but  the  molding  is  still  a  part  of  the  batten  C  itself. 

Fig.  364  shows  a  form  of  paneling  where  both  the  molding  D 
on  the  face  and  the  piece  A  on  the  back  are  separated,  and  the  batten 
C  is  cut  with  a  rabbet  to  receive  the  molding  on  the  face  so  that  it 
will  not  extend  too  far  on  the  face  of  the  panel  5,  in  which  case  it  is 
likely  to  curl  up  a  little  at  the  edge  and  become  separated  from  the 


259 


248 


CARPENTRY 


panel  instead  of  lying  flat  against  it.     This  latter  method  is  much 
the  best,  especially  in  the  case  of  raised  panel  moldings. 


Fig.  365.     Vertical  Section 
through  Plate  Rail 


Fig.  366.     Forms  of  Picture  Molding 


In  dining  rooms  and  in  some  other  rooms  it  is  customary  to 
carry  the  wainscoting  to  a  height  of  5  or  6  feet  from  the  floor  and  in 
this  case  it  is  usually  capped  with  a  member  called  a  "plate  rail." 
Fig.  365  shows  a  section  taken  vertically  through  such  a  plate  rail. 
The  wainscoting  or  dado  A  stops  underneath  the  blocking  C,  and 


367.     Section  Showing  Construction  of  Wood  Cornices 


a  molded  piece  B  is  planted  onto  the  face  of  the  blocking  to  form  a 
finish.  The  projection  of  the  rail  from  the  wall  is  about  3^  inches. 
Wood  Cornices.  In  many  cases  the  only  portion  of  the  cornice 
around  a  room  which  is  made  of  wood,  is  the  picture  molding,  which 
is  a  small  molding  to  the  top  of  which  picture  hooks  may  be  fastened. 
Fig.  366  shows  several  forms  which  such  a  molding  may  take. 


260 


CARPENTRY 


249 


When  it  is  desired  to  have  the  entire  cornice  in  wood,  it  should 
be  built  up  out  of  comparatively  thin  pieces,  say  |-inch  stuff,  and 
these  thin  pieces  should  be  blocked  out  with  rough  blocking  to  the 
extent  desired.  In  Fig.  367,  A,  B,  and  C  are  furring  strips  placed 
about  2  feet  apart  and  the  shaded  portions  represent  the  pieces  out 
of  which  the  cornice  is  built  up. 

Wood  Ceiling  Beams.  It  is  often  necessary  or  desirable  to  have 
beams  showing  in  the  ceiling  of  certain  rooms,  and  these  beams  may 


Fig.  368.     Section  Showing  Method  of  Finishing 
Off  Steel  I-Beam 


be  either  true  or  false,  that  is,  they  may  be  either  an  ornamental 
covering  for  beams  which  really  exist,  or  they  may  be  entirely  orna- 
mental, enclosing  nothing  which  forms  part  of  the  real  construction 
of  the  building. 

Fig.  368  shows  how  a  steel  beam  may  be  covered  and  ornamented 
so  as  to  give  a  finished  appearance  in  wood  in  the  ceiling.  A  A  are 
the  floor  joists,  and  B  is  the  steel  beam.  C  is  the  line  of  the  finished 
floor  above,  and  D  is  the  line  of  the  finished  ceiling.  E  is  the  finish 
of  the  ceiling  beam,  and  F  is  a  little  molding  to  cover  the  joint 
between  the  plaster  and  the  wood. 

In  case  the  beams  are  false,  they  are  constructed  in  the  same 
way  except  that  the  shell  is  filled  in  with  blocking  to  take  the  place 
of  the  real  beam  shown  in  Fig.  368. 

Staircase  Finish.  The  subject  of  stair  building,  including  the 
finishing  of  staircases,  is  completely  covered  in  the  article  entitled 
"Stair  Building." 


261 


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STAIR-BUILDING 


Introductory.  In  the  following  instructions  in  the  art  of  Stair- 
building,  it  is  the  intention  to  adhere  closely  to  the  practical  phases 
of  the  subject,  and  to  present  only  such  matter  as  will  directly  aid 
the  student  in  acquiring  a  practical  mastery  of  the  art. 

Stair-building,  though  one  of  the  most  important  subjects  con- 
nected with  the  art  of  building,  is  probably  ihe  subject  least  under- 
stood by  designers  and  by  workmen  generally.  In  but  few  of  the 
plans  that  leave  the  offices  of  Architects,  are  the  stairs  properly  laid 
down ;  and  many  of  the  books  that  have  been  sent  out  for  the  purpose 
of  giving  instruction  in  the  art  of  building,  have  this  common  defect — 
that  the  body  of  the  stairs  is  laid  down  imperfectly,  and  therefore 
presents  great  difficulties  in  the  construction  of  the  rail. 

The  stairs  are  an  important  feature  of  a  building.  On  entering 
a  house  they  are  usually  the  first  object  to  meet  the  eye  and  claim 
the  attention.  If  one  sees  an  ugly  staircase,  it  will,  in  a  measure, 
condemn  the  whole  house,  for  the  first  impression  produced  will 
hardly  afterwards  be  totally  eradicated  by  commendable  features 
that  may  be  noted  elsewhere  in  the  building.  It  is  extremely  important, 
therefore,  that  both  designer  and  workman  shall  see  that  staircases 
are  properly  laid  out. 

Stairways  should  be  commodious  to  ascend — inviting  people, 
as  it  were,  to  go  up.  When  winders  are  used,  they  should  extend 
past  the  spring  line  of  the  cylinder,  so  as  to  give  proper  width  at 
the  narrow  end  (see  Fig.  72)  and  bring  the  rail  there  as  nearly  as 
possible  to  the  same  pitch  or  slant  as  the  rail  over  the  square  steps. 
When  the  hall  is  of  sufficient  width,  the  stairway  should  not  be  less 
than  four  feet  wide,  so  that  two  people  can  conveniently  pass  each 
other  thereon.  The  height  of  riser  and  width  of  tread  are  governed 
by  the  staircase,  which  is  the  space  allowed  for  the  stairway;  but, 
as  a  general  rule,  the  tread  should  not  be  less  than  nine  inches  wide, 
and  the  riser  should  not  be  over  eight  inches  high.    Seven-inch  riser 


263 


Fis 


1.    Illustrating  Rise,  Kun,  and 
Pitch. 


2  STAIR-BUILDING 

and  eleven-inch  tread  will  make  an  easy  stepping  stairway.  If  you 
increase  the  width  of  the  tread,  you  must  reduce  the  height  of  the  riser. 
The  tread  and  riser  together  should  not  be  over  eighteen  inches, 
and  not  less  than  seventeen  inches.  These  dimensions,  however, 
cannot  always  be  adhered  to,  as  conditions  will  often  compel  a  devia- 
tion from  the  rule;  for  instance,  in  large  buildings,  such  as  hotels, 
railway  depots,  or  other  public  buildings,  treads  are  often  made  18 

inches  wide,  having  risers  of  from 
2^  inches  to  5  inches  depth. 

Definitions.  Before  pro- 
ceeding further  with  the  subject, 
it  is  essential  that  the  student 
make  himself  familiar  with  a  few 
of  the  terms  used  in  stair-building. 
The  term  rise  and  run  is 
often  used,  and  indicates  certain 
dimensions  of  the  stairway.  Fig. 
1  will  illustrate  exactly  what  is 
meant;  the  line  A  B  shows  the  run,  or  the  length  over  the  floor  the 
stairs  will  occupy.  From  5  to  C  is  the  rise,  or  the  total  height  from 
tof  of  lower  floor  to  top  of  upper  floor.*  The  line  D  is  the  'pitch  or 
line  of  nosings,  showing  the  angle  of  inclination  of  the  stairs.  On 
the  three  lines  shown — the  run,  the  rise,  and  the  'pitch — depends 
the  whole  system  of  stair-building. 

The  hod'y  or  staircase  is  the  room  or  space  in  which  the  stairway 
is  contained.  This  may  be  a  space  including  the  width  and  length 
of  the  stairway  only,  in  which  case  it  is  called  a  close  stairway,  no  rail 
or  baluster  being  necessary.  Or  the  stairway  may  be  in  a  large 
apartment,  such  as  a  passage  or  hall,  or  even  in  a  large  room,  openings 
being  left  in  the  upper  floors  so  as  to  allow  road  room  for  persons  on 
the  stairway,  and  to  furnish  communication  between  the  stairways 
and  the  different  stories  of  the  building.  In  such  cases  we  have  what 
are  known  as  open  stairivays,  from  the  fact  that  they  are  not  closed 
on  both  sides,  the  steps  showing  their  ends  at  one  side,  while  on  the 
other  side  they  are  generally  placed  against  the  wall. 

Sometimes  stairways  are  left  open  on  both  sides,  a  practice  not 

*NOTE.— The  measure  for  the  rise  of  a  stairway  must  always  be  taken  from  the  top 
of  one  floor  to  the  top  of  the  next. 


264 


STAIR-BUILDING  3 

uncommon  in  hotels,  public  halls,  and  steamships.  When  such  stairs 
are  employed,  the  openings  in  the  upper  floor  should  be  well  trimmed 
with  joists  or  beams  somewhat  stronger  than  the  ordinary  joists  used 
in  the  same  floor,  as  will  be  explained  further  on. 

Tread.  This  is  the  horizontal,  upper  surface  of  the  step,  upon 
which  the  foot  is  placed.  In  other  words,  it  is  the  piece  of  material 
that  forms  the  step,  and  is  generally  from  1|  to  3  inches  thick,  and 
made  of  a  width  and  length  to  suit  the  position  for  which  it  is  intended. 
In  small  houses,  the  treads  are  usually  made  of  |-inch  stuff. 

Riser.  This  is  the  vertical  height  of  the  step.  The  riser  is  gen- 
erally made  of  thinner  stuff  than  the  tread,  and,  as  a  rule,  is  not  so 
heavy.  Its  duty  is  to  connect  the  treads  together,  and  to  give  the 
stairs  strength  and  solidity. 

Rise  and  Run.  This  term,  as  already  explained,  is  used  to  indi- 
cate the  horizontal  and  vertical  dimensions  of  the  stairway,  the  rise 
meaning  the  height  from  the  top  of  the  lower  floor  to  the  top  of  the 
second  floor;  and  the  run  meaning  the  horizontal  distance  from  the 
face  of  the  first  riser  to  the  face  of  the  last  or  top  riser,  or,  in  other 
words,  the  distance  between  the  face  of  the  first  riser  and  the  point 
where  a  plumb  line  from  the  face  of  the  top  riser  would  strike  the  floor. 
It  is,  in  fact,  simply  the  distance  that  the  treads  would  make  if  put 
side  by  side  and  measured  together — without,  of  course,  taking  in 
the  nosings. 

Suppose  there  are  fifteen  treads,  each  being  11  inches  wide; 
this  would  make  a  run  of  15  X  H  =  165  inches  =  13  feet  9  inches. 
Sometimes  this  distance  is  called  the  going  of  the  stair ;  this,  however, 
is  an  English  term,  seldom  used  in  America,  and  when  used,  refers 
as  frequently  to  the  length  of  the  single  tread  as  it  does  to  the  run  of 
the  stairway. 

String-Board.  This  is  the  board  forming  the  side  of  the  stairway, 
connecting  with,  and  supporting  the  ends  of  the  steps.  Where  the 
steps  are  housed,  or  grooved  into  the  board,  it  is  known  by  the  term 
housed  string;  and  when  it  is  cut  through  for  the  tread  to  rest  upon, 
and  is  mitered  to  the  riser,  it  is  known  by  the  term  cut  and  mitered 
string.  The  dimensions  of  the  lumber  generally  used  for  the  purpose 
in  practical  work,  are  92"  inches  width  and  f  inch  thickness.  In  the 
first-class  stairways  the  thickness  is  usually  Ij  inches,  for  both  front 
and  wall  strings. 


265 


4 


STAIR-BUILDING 


Fig.  2  shows  the  manner  in  which  most  stair-builders  put  their 
risers  and  treads  together.     T  and  T  show  the  treads;  R  and  R,  the 

risers;  S  and  S,  the  string;  0  and  0,  the 
cove  mouldings  under  the  nosings  X  and 
X.  B  and  B  show  the  blocks  that  hold 
the  treads  and  risers  together;  these 
blocks  should  be  from  4  to  6  inches 
long,  and  made  of  very  dry  wood ;  their 
section  may  be  from  1  to  2  inches  square. 
On  a  tread  3  feet  long,  three  of  these 
blocks  should  be  used  at  about  equal 
distances  apart,  putting  the  two  outside 
ones  about  6  inches  from  the  strings. 
They  are  glued  up  tight  into  the  angle. 
First  warm  the  blocks;  next  coat  two  adjoining  sides  with  good,  strong 
glue;  then  put  them  in  position,  and  nail  them  firmly  to  both  tread 
and  riser.  It  will  be  noticed  that  the  riser  has  a  lip  on  the  upper 
edge,  which  enters  into  a  groove  in  the  tread.    This  lip  is  generally 


Fig.  3. 


Common  Method  of  Join- 
g  Risers  and  Treads. 


Pig.  3.  Vertical  Section 
of  Stair  Steps. 


Fig.  4.  End  Section 
of  Riser. 


Fig.  5.  End  Section 
of  Tread. 


about  f  mch  long,  and  may  be  |  inch  or  §  inch  in  thickness.  Care 
must  be  taken  in  getting  out  the  risers,  that  they  shall  not  be  made 
too  narrow,  as  allowance  must  be  made  for  the  lip. 

If  the  riser  is  a  little  too  wide,  this  will  do  no  harm,  as  the  ovcr- 
width  may  hang  down  below  the  tread ;  but  it  must  be  cut  the  exact 
width  where  it  rests  on  the  string.  The  treads  must  be  made  the 
exact  width  required,  before  they  are  grooved  or  have  the  nosing 


266 


HOUSE  IN  URBANA,  ILL. 

White  &  Temple,  Architects,  University  of  Illinois 

Walls  and  Roof  Shingled.     Cost,  $5,000-$5,500.     View  Taken  from  Southwest. 

For  Interiors,  See  Page  203. 


T   n 


L 


SECOMD  rLoOR  PL./\n 


PLANS  OF  HOUSE  IN  URBANA,  ILL. 


STAIR-BUILDING 


Fig.  6.   Side  Elevation  of  Finish' 

ed   Steps   with  Return 

Nosings   and    Cove 

Moulding. 


worked  on  the  outer  edge.  The  Hp  or  tongue  on  the  riser  should  fit 
snugly  in  the  groove,  and  should  bottom.     By  following  these  last 

instructions  and  seeing  that  the  blocks  are 
well  glued  in,  a  good  solid  job  will  be  the 
result. 

Fig.  3  is  a  vertical  section  of  stair 
steps  in  which  the  risers  are  shown 
tongued  into  the  under  side  of  the  tread, 
as  in  Fig.  2,  and  also  the  tread  tongued 
into  the  face  of  the  riser.  This  last 
method  is  in  general  use  throughout  the 
country.  The  stair-builder,  when  he  has 
steps  of  this  kind  to  construct,  needs  to 
be  very  careful  to  secure  the  exact  width 
for  tread  and  riser,  including  the  tongue  on  each.  The  usual 
method,  in  getting  the  parts  prepared,  is  to  make  a  pattern  show- 
ing the  end  section  of  each.  The  millman,  with  these  patterns 
to  guide  him,  will  be  able  to  run  the  material  through  the  machine 
without  any  danger  of  leaving  it  either  too  wide  or  too  narrow;  while, 
if  he  is  left  to  himself  without  patterns,  he  is  liable  to  make  mistakes. 
These  patterns  are  illustrated  in  Figs.  4  and  5  respectively,  and,  as 
shown,  are  merely  end  sections  of  riser  and  tread. 

Fig.  6  is  a  side  elevation  of  the  steps  as  finished,  with  return 
nosings  and  cove  moulding  complete. 

A  front  elevation  of  the  finished  step 
is  shown  in  Fig.  7,  the  nosing  and  riser 
returning  against  the  base  of  the  newel  post. 
Often  the  newel  post  projects  past  the 
riser,  in  front;  and  when  such  is  the  case, 
the  riser  and  nosing  are  cut  square  against 
the  base  of  the  newel. 

Fig.  8  shows  a  portion  of  a  cut  and 
mitered  string,  which  will  give  an  excellent 
idea  of  the  method  of  construction.    The 

letter  0  shows  the  nosing,  F  the  return  nosing  with  a  bracket  termi- 
nating against  it.  These  brackets  are  about  j^  i^ich  thick,  and  are 
'planted  (nailed)  on  the  string;  the  brackets  miter  with  the  ends  of 
the  risers;  the  ends  of  the  brackets  which  miter  with  the  risers,  are 


Fig.  7.  Front  Elevation  of 
Finished  Steps. 


267 


6 


STAIR-BUILDING 


Fig.  8.    Portion  of  a  Cut  and  Mitered 
String,   Showing  Method  of 
Constructing  Stairs. 


to  be  the  same  height  as  the  riser.  The  lower  ends  of  two  balus- 
ters are  shown  at  G  G;  and  the  dovetails  or  mortises  to  receive  these 
are  shown  at  E  E.     Generally  two  balusters  are  placed  on  each 

tread,  as  shown;  but  there  are  some^ 
times  instances  in  which  three  are  used, 
while  in  others  only  one  baluster  is 
made  use  of. 

An  end  portion  of  a  cut  and 
mitered  string  is  shown  in  Fig.  9,  with 
part  of  the  string  taken  away,  show- 
ing the  carriage  —  a  rough  piece  of 
lumber  to  which  the  finished  string  is 
nailed  or  otherwise  fastened.  At  C  is 
shown  the  return  nosing,  and  the  man- 
ner in  which  the  work  is  finished.  A 
rough  bracket  is  sometimes  nailed  on 
the  carriage,  as  shown  at  D,  to  support  the  tread.  The  balusters  are 
shown  dovetailed  into  the  ends  of  the  treads,  and  are  either  glued  or 
nailed  in  place,  or  both.  On  the  lower  edge  of  string,  at  B,  is  a  return 
bead  or  moulding.  It  will  be  noticed  that  the  rough  carriage  is  cut  in 
snugly  against  the  floor  joist. 
Fig.  10  is  a  plan  of  the  portion 
of  a  stairway  shown  in  Fig.  9. 
Here  the  position  of  the  string, 
bracket,  riser,  and  tread  can  be 
seen.  At  the  lower  step  is  shown 
how  to  miter  the  riser  to  the 
string;  and  at  the  second  step  is 
shown  how  to  miter  it  to  the 
bracket. 

Fig.  11  shows  a  quick  method 
of  marking  the  ends  of  the  treads 
for  the  dovetails  for  balusters. 
The  templet  A  is  made  of  some 
thin  material,  preferably  zinc  or 

hardwood.  The  dovetails  are  outlined  as  shown,  and  the  intervening 
portions  of  the  material  are  cut  away,  leaving  the  dovetail  portions 
solid.     The  templet  is  then  nailed  or  screwed  to  a  gauge-block  E, 


Fig.  9.    End  Portion  of  Cut  and  Mitered 

String,  with  Part  Removed  to 

Show   Carriage. 


268 


STAIR-BUILDING 


Fig.  10,    Plan  of  Portion  of  Stair. 


when  the  whole  is  ready  for  use.    The  method  of  using  is  clearly 
indicated  in  the  illustration. 

Strings.     There  are  two  main  kinds  of  stair  strings — wall  strings 

and  cut  strings.  These  are  divid- 
ed, again,  under  other  names,  as 
housed  strings,  notched  strings, 
staved  strings,  and  rough  strings. 
Wall  strings  are  the  supporters 
of  the  ends  of  the  treads  and 
risers  that  are  against  the  wall; 
these  strings  may  be  at  both  ends  of 
the  treads  and  risers,  or  they  may  be  at  one  end  only.  They  may  be 
housed  (grooved)  or  left  solid.  When  housed,  the  treads  and  risers 
are  keyed  into  them,  and  glued  and  blocked.  When  left  solid,  they 
have  a  rough  string  or  carriage  spiked  or  screwed  to  them,  to  lend 
additional  support  to  the  ends  of  risers  and  treads.  Stairs  made  after 
this  fashion  are  generally  of  a  rough,  strong  kind,  and  are  especially 
adapted  for  use  in  factories,  shops,  and  warehouses,  where  strength 
and  rigidity  are  of  more  importance  than  mere  external  appearance. 
Ofen  strings  are  outside  strings  or  supports,  and  are  cut  to  the 
proper  angles  for  receiving  the  ends  of 
the  treads  and  risers.  It  is  over  a  string 
of  this  sort  that  the  rail  and  balusters 
range;  it  is  also  on  such  a  string  that  al 
nosings  return ;  hence,  in  some  localities, 
an  open  string  is  known  as  a  return  string. 
Housed  strings  are  those  that  have 
grooves  cut  in  them  to  receive  the  ends  of 
treads  and  risers.  As  a  general  thing,  wall  strings  are  housed.  The 
housings  are  made  from  f  to  f  inch  deep,  and  the  lines  at  top  of  tread 
and  face  of  riser  are  made  to  correspond  with  the  lines  of  riser  and 
tread  when  in  position.  The  back  lines  of  the  housings  are  so 
located  that  a  taper  wedge  may  be  driven  in  so  as  to  force  the  tread 
and  riser  close  to  the  face  shoulders,  thus  making  a  tight  joint. 

Rough  strings  are  cut  from  undressed  plank,  and  are  used  for 
strengthening  the  stairs.  Sometimes  a  combination  of  rough-cut 
strings  is  used  for  circular  or  geometrical  stairs,  and,  when  framed 
together,  forms  the  support  or  carriage  of  the  stairs. 


Fig.  1 1 .    Templet  Used  to  Mark 

Dovetail  Cuts   for 

Balusters. 


269 


8  STAIR-BUILDING 

Staved  strings  are  built-up  strings,  and  are  composed  of  narrow 
pieces  glued,  nailed,  or  bolted  together  so  as  to  form  a  portion  of  a 
cylinder.  These  are  sometimes  used  for  circular  stairs,  though  in 
ordinary  practice  the  circular  part  of  a  string  is  a  part  of  the  main 
string  bent  around  a  cylinder  to  give  it  the  right  curve. 

Notched  strings  are  strings  that  carry  only  treads.  They  are 
generally  somewhat  narrov/er  than  the  treads,  and  are  housed  across 
their  entire  width.  A  sample  of  this  kind  of  string  is  the  side  of  a 
common  step-ladder.  Strings  of  this  sort  are  used  chiefly  in  cellars, 
or  for  steps  intended  for  similar  purposes. 

Setting  Out  Stairs.  In  setting  out  stairs,  the  first  thing  to  do  is 
to  ascertain  the  locations  of  the  first  and  last  risers,  with  the  height 
of  the  story  wherein  the  stair  is  to  be  placed.  These  points  should  be 
marked  out,  and  the  distance  between  them  divided  off  equally, 
giving  the  number  of  steps  or  treads  required.  Suppose  we  have 
between  these  two  points  15  feet,  or  180  inches.  If  we  make  our 
treads  10  inches  wide,  we  shall  have  18  treads.  It  must  be  remembered 
that  the  number  of  risers  is  always  one  more  than  the  number  of  treads, 
so  that  in  the  case  before  us  there  will  be  19  risers. 

The  height  of  the  story  is  next  to  be  exactly  determined,  being 
taken  on  a  rod.  Then,  assuming  a  height  of  riser  suitable  to  the  place, 
we  ascertain,  by  division,  how  often  this  height  of  riser  is  contained 
in  the  height  of  the  story;  the  quotient,  if  there  is  no  remainder, 
will  be  the  number  of  risers  in  the  story.  Should  there  be  a  remainder 
on  the  first  division,  the  operation  is  reversed,  the  number  of  inches 
in  the  height  being  made  the  dividend,  and  the  before-found  quotient, 
the  divisor.  The  resulting  quotient  will  indicate  an  amount  to  be 
added  to  the  former  assumed  height  of  riser  for  a  new  trial  height. 
The  remainder  will  now  be  less  than  in  the  former  division;  and  if 
necessary,  the  operation  of  reduction  by  division  is  repeated,  until 
the  height  of  the  riser  is  obtained  to  the  thirty-second  part  of  an  inch. 
These  heights  are  then  set  off  on  the  story  rod  as  exactly  as  possible. 

The  story  rod  is  simply  a  dressed  or  planed  pole,  cut  to  a  length 
exactly  corresponding  to  the  height  from  the  top  of  the  lower  floor 
to  the  top  of  the  next  floor.  Let  us  suppose  this  height  to  be  11  feet 
1  inch,  or  133  inches.  Now,  we  have  19  risers  to  place  in  this  space, 
to  enable  us  to  get  upstairs;  therefoia,  if  we  divide  133  by  19,  we 
get  7  without  any  remainder.     Se\en  inches  will  therefore  be  the 


270 


STAIR-BUILDING  9 

width  or  height  of  the  riser.  Without  figuring  this  out,  the  workman 
may  find  the  exact  width  of  the  riser  by  dividing  his  story  rod,  by 
means  of  pointers,  into  19  equal  parts,  any  one  part  being  the  proper 
width.  It  may  be  well,  at  this  point,  to  remember  that  the  first  riser 
must  always  be  narrower  than  the  others,  because  the  thickness  of  the 
first  tread  must  be  taken  off. 

The  width  of  treads  may  also  be  found  without  figuring,  by 
pointing  off  the  ru7i  of  the  stairs  into  the  required  number  of  parts; 
though,  where  the  student  is  qualified,  it  is  always  better  to  obtain 
the  width,  both  of  treads  and  of  risers,  by  the  simple  arithmetical 
rules. 

Having  determined  the  width  of  treads  and  risers,  a  pitch-board 
should  be  formed,  showing  the  angle  of  inclination.  This  is  done  by 
cutting  a  piece  of  thin  board  or  metal  in  the  shape  of  a  right-angled 
triangle,  with  its  base  exactly  equal  to  the  run  of  the  step,  and  its 
perpendicular  equal  to 
the  height  of  the  riser. 
It  is  a  general  maxim, 
that  the  greater  the 
breadth  of  a  step  or  tread, 
the  less  should  be  the 
height  of  the  riser;  and, 
conversely,  the  less  the 
breadth  of  a  step,  the 
greater  should  be  the 
height  of  the  riser.    The 

proper  relative  dimensions  of  treads  and  risers  may  be  illustrated 
graphically,  as  in  Fig.  12. 

In  the  right-angle  triangle  ABC,  make  A  B  equal  to  24  inches, 
and  B  C  equal  to  11  inches — the  standard  proportion.  Now,  to  find 
the  riser  corresponding  to  a  given  width  of  tread,  from  B,  set  off  on 
A  B  the  width  of  the  tread,  as  B  D;  and  from  D,  erect  a  perpendicular 
D  E,  meeting  the  hypotenuse  in  E;  then  D  E  is  the  height  of  the  riser; 
and  if  we  join  B  and  E,  the  angle  D  B  E  is  the  angle  of  inclination, 
showing  the  slope  of  the  ascent.  In  like  manner,  where  B  F  is  the 
width  of  the  tread,  F  G  is  the  riser,  and  B  G  the  slope  of  the  stair. 
A  width  of  tread  B  II  gives  a  riser  of  the  height  of  EI  K;  and  a  width 
of  tread  equal  to  B  L  gives  a  riser  equal  to  L  M 


Fig.  12.    Graphic  Illustration  of  Proportional  Dimen- 
sions of  Treads  and  Risers. 


271 


10  STAIR-BUILDING 

In  the  opinion  of  many  builders,  however,  a  better  scheme  of 
proportions  for  treads  and  risers  is  obtained  by  the  following  method : 

Set  down  two  sets  of  numbers,  each  in  arithmetical  progression— 
the  first  set  showing  widths  of  tread,  increasing  by  inches;  the  other 
showing  heights  of  riser,  decreasing  by  half-inches. 


Treads,  Inches 

Risers,  In-ches 

5 

9 

6 

8^ 

7 

8 

S 

"i 

9 

7 

10 

64 

11 

6 

12 

H 

13 

5 

14 

44 

15 

4 

16 

34 

17 

3 

18 

24 

It  will  readily  be  seen  that  each  pair  of  treads  and  risers  thus  obtained 
is  suitably  proportioned  as  to  dimensions. 

It  is  seldom,  however,  that  the  proportions  of  treads  and  risers 
are  entirely  a  matter  of  choice.  The  space  allotted  to  the  stairs  usually 
determines  this  proportion ;  but  the  above  will  be  found  a  useful  stand- 
ard, to  which  it  is  desirable  to  approximate. 

In  the  better  class  of  buildings,  the  number  of  steps  is  considered 
in  the  plan,  which  it  is  the  business  of  the  Architect  to  arrange;  and 
in  such  cases,  the  height  of  the  story  rod  is  simply  divided  into  the 
number  required. 

Pitch-Board.  It  will  now  be  in  order  to  describe  a  pitch-board 
and  the  manner  of  using  it;  no  stairs  can  be  properly  built  without 
the  use  of  a  pitch-board  in  some  form  or  other.  Properly  speaking, 
a  pitch-board,  as  already  explained,  is  a  thin  piece  of  material, 
generally  pine  or  sheet  metal,  and  is  a  right-angled  triangle  in  outline. 
One  of  its  sides  is  made  the  exact  height  of  the  rise;  at  right  angles 
with  this  line  of  rise,  the  exact  width  of  the  tread  is  measured  off; 
and  the  material  is  cut  along  the  hypotenuse  of  the  right-angled 
triangle  thus  formed. 

The  simplest  method  of  making  a  pitch-board  is  by  using  a  steel 


272 


STAIR-BUILDING 


11 


Fig.  13.    Steel  Square  Used  as  a  Pitch 

Board  in  Laying  Out  Stair 

String. 


square,  which,  of  course,  every  carpenter  in  this  country  is  supposed 

to  possess.    By  means  of  this  invaluable  tool,  also,  a  stair  string  can 

be  laid  out,  the  square  being  applied  to  the  string  as  shown  in  Fig.  13. 

In  the  instance  here  illustrated,  the 
square  shows  10  inches  for  the 
tread  and  7  inches  for  the  rise. 

To  cut  a  pitch-board,  after  the 
tread  and  rise  have  been  deter- 
mined, proceed  as  follows:  Take 
a  piece  of  thin,  clear  material,  and 
lay  the  square  on  the  face  edge,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  13.    Mark  out  the 

pitch-board  with  a  sharp  knife;  then  cut  out  with  a  fine  saw,  and 

dress  to  the  knife  marks;  nail  a  piece  on  the  largest  edge  of  the  pitch- 
board  for  a  gauge  or  fence,  and  it  is  ready  for  use. 

Fig.  14  shows  the  pitch-board  pure  and  simple;  it  may  be  half 

an  inch  thick,  or,  if  of  hardwood,  may  be  from  a  quarter-inch  to  a 

half-inch  thick. 

Fig.  15  shows  the  pitch-board  after  the  gauge  or  fence  is  nailed  on. 

This  fence  or  gauge  may  be  about  IJ  inches  wide  and  from  |  to  f 

inch  thick . 

Fig.  16  shows  a  sectional  view  of  the  pitch-board  with  a  fence 

nailed  on. 

In  Fig.  17  the  manner  of  applying  the  pitch-board  is  shown. 

R  R  Ris  the  string,  and  the  line  A  shows  the  jointed  or  straight  edge 

of    the    string.      The 

pitch-board    P     is  *" 

shown  in  position,  the 

line  8^  represents  the 

step  or  tread,  and  the 

line  7|  shows  the  line 

of  the    riser.     These 

two  lines  are  of  course 

at  right  angles,  or,  as  the  carpenter  would  say,  they  are  square. 

This  string  shows  four    complete  cuts,  and  part  of  a  fifth  cut  for 

treads,  and  five  complete  cuts  for  risers.     The  bottom  of  the  string 

at  W  is  cut  off  at  the  line  of  the  floor  on  which  it  is  supposed  to 

rest.    The  line  C  is  the  line  of  the  first  riser.     This  riser  is  cut  lower 


Fig.  14. 


Fig.  15. 


Fig.  16. 


Showing  How  a  Pitch-Board  is  Made. 

Fig.  15  shows  gauge  fastened  to  long  edge ;  Fig.  16  is  a 

sectional  elevation  of  completed  board. 


273 


c 


Fig.  17.    Showing  Method  of  Using  Pitch-Board. 


12  STAIR-BUILDING 

than  any  of  the  other  risers,  because,  as  above  explained,  the  thick- 
ness of  the  first  tread  is  always  taken  off  it;  thus,  if  the  tread  is  IJ 
inches  thick,  the  riser  in  this  case  would  only  require  to  be  6^  inches 
wide,  as  7f  —  1^  =  6j. 

The  string  must  be  cut  so  that  the  line  at  W  will  be  only  6^ 
inches  from  the  line  at  8^,  and  these  two  lines  must  be  parallel. 
The  first  riser  and  tread  having  been  satisfactorily  dealt  with,  the 
rest  can  easily  be  marked  off  by  simply  sliding  the  pitch-board  along 
the  line  A  until  the  outer  end  of  the  line  8|  on  the  pitch-board 
strikes  the  outer  end  of  the  line  7f  on  the  string,  when  another  tread 
and  another  riser  are  to  be  marked  off.  The  remaining  risers  and 
treads  are  marked  off  in  the  same  manner. 

Sometimes  there  may  be  a  little  difficulty  at  the  top  of  the  stairs, 

in   fitting  the   string  to  the 

^      ^ ^,^      trimmer  or  joists;  but,  as  it 

is  necessary  first  to  become 
expert  with  the  pitch-board, 
the  method  of  trimming  the 
well  or  attaching  the  cylinder 
to  the  string  will  be  left  until  other  matters  have  been  discussed. 

Fig.  18  shows  a  portion  of  the  stairs  in  position.  S  and  S  show 
the  strings,  which  in  this  case  are  cut  square;  that  is,  the  part  of  the 
string  to  which  the  riser  is  joined  is  cut  square  across,  and  the  butt  or 
end  wood  of  the  riser  is  seen.  In  this  case,  also,  the  end  of  the  tread 
is  cut  square  off,  and  flush  with  the  string  and  riser.  Both  strings 
in  this  instance  are  open  strings.  Usually,  in  stairs  of  this  kind,  the 
ends  of  the  treads  are  rounded  off  similarly  to  the  front  of  the  tread, 
and  the  ends  project  over  the  strings  the  same  distance  that  the  front 
edge  projects  over  the  riser.  If  a  moulding  or  cove  is  used  under  the 
nosing  in  front,  it  should  be  carried  round  on  the  string  to  the  back 
edge  of  the  tread  and  cut  off  square,  for  in  this  case  the  back  edge  of 
the  tread  will  be  square.  A  riser  is  shown  at  R,  and  it  will  be  noticed 
that  it  runs  down  behind  the  tread  on  the  back  edge,  and  is  either 
nailed  or  screwed  to  the  tread.  This  is  the  American  practice,  though 
in  England  the  riser  usually  rests  on  the  tread,  which  extends  clear 
back  to  string  as  shown  at  the  top  tread  in  the  diagram.  It  is  much 
better,  however,  for  general  purposes,  that  the  riser  go  behind  the 
tread,  as  this  tends  to  make  the  whole  stairway  much  stronger. 


374 


STAIR-BUILDING 


13 


Fig.  18.    Portion  of  Stair  in  Position. 


Housed  strings  are  those  which  carry  the  treads  and  risers  without 
their  ends  being  seen.  In  an  open  stair,  the  wall  string  only  is  housed, 
the  other  ends  of  the  treads  and  risers  resting  on  a  cut  string,  and  the 

nosings  and  mouldings 
being  returned  as  be- 
fore described. 

The  manner  of 
housing  is  shown  in 
Fig.  19,  in  which  the 
treads  T  T  and  the 
risers  R  R  are  shown 
in  position,  secured  in 
place  respectively  by 
means  of  wedges  X  X 
and  F  F,  which  should 
be  well  covered  with 
good  glue  before  insertion  in  the  groove.  The  housings  are 
generally  made  from  ^  to  f  inch  deep,  space  for  the  wedge  being  cut 
to  suit. 

In  some  closed  stairs  in  which  there  is  a  housed  string  between  the 
newels,  the  string  is  double-tenoned  into  the  shanks  of  both  newels, 
as  shown  in  Fig.  20.  The  string  in  this  example  is  made  12|  inches 
wide,  which  is  a  very  good  width 
for  a  string  of  this  kind;  but  the 
thickness  should  never  be  less  than 
1^  inches.  The  upper  newel  is  made 
about  5  feet  4  inches  long  from  drop 
to  top  of  cap.  These  strings  are 
generally  capped  with  a  subrail  of 
some  kind,  on  which,  the  baluster, 
if  any,  is  cut-mitered  in.  Generally 
a  groove,  the  width  of  the  square  Fig- 19- 
of  the  balusters,  is  worked  on  the 
top  of  the  subrail,  and  the  balusters  are  worked  out  to  fit  into  this 
groove;  then  pieces  of  this  material,  made  the  width  of  the  groove 
and  a  little  thicker  than  the  groove  is  deep,  are  cut  so  as  to  fit  in 
snugly  between  the  ends  of  the  balusters  resting  in  the  groove.  This 
makes  a  solid  job;  and  the  pieces  between  the  balusters  may  be  made 


Showing  Method  of  Housing 
Treads  and  Risers. 


275 


14 


STAIR-BUIT.DING 


of  any  shape  on  top,  either  beveled,  rounded,  or  moulded,  in  which 
case  much  is  added  to  the  appearance  of  the  stairs. 

Fig.  21  exhibits  the  method  of  attaching  the  rail  and  string  to 

the  bottom  newel.  The  dotted  lines 
indicate  the  form  of  the  tenons  cut  to 
fit  the  mortises  made  in  the  newel  to 
receive  them. 

Fig.   22  shows  how  the  string  fits 


against  the  newel  at  the  top; 
also  the  trimmer  E,  to  which  the 
newel  post  is  fastened.  The 
string  in  this  case  is  tenoned  into 
the  upper  newel  post  the  same 
way  as  into  the  lower  one. 


Fig.  20.    Showing  Method  of  Con- 
necting Housed  String  to 

Newels. 


Fig.  21.  Method  of  Connect- 
ing Rail  and  String  to 
Bottom  Newel. 


The  open  string  shown  in  Fig.  23  is  a  portion 
of  a  finished  string,  showing  nosings  and  cove 
returned  and  finishing  against  the  face  of  the 
string.  Along  the  lower  edge  of  the  string  is 
shown  a  bead  or  moulding,  where  the  plaster 
is  finished. 

A  portion  of  a  stair  of  the  better  class  is 
shown  in  Fig.  24.  This  is  an  open,  bracketed 
string,  with  returned  nosings  and  coves  and 
scroll  brackets.  These  brackets  are  made  about 
f  inch  thick,  and  may  be  in  any  desirable  pat- 
tern. The  end  next  the  riser  should  be  mitered 
to  suit;  this  will  require  the  riser  to  be  f  inch 
longer  than  the  face  of  the  string.  The  upper 
part  of  the  bracket  should  run  under  the  cove 
moulding;  and  the  tread  should  project  over 
the  string  the  full  |  inch,  so  as  to  cover  the 


276 


STAIR-BUILDING 


15 


WMWM/^M 


bracket  and  make  the  fpce  even  for  the  nosing  and  the  cove  moulding 
to  fit  snugly  against  the  end  of  the  tread  and  the  face  of  the  bracket. 
Great  care  must  be  taken  about  this  point,  or  endless  trouble  will 

follow.  In  a  bracketed 
stair  of  this  kind,  care 
must  be  taken  in  plac- 
ing the  newel  posts, 
and  provision  must  be 
made  for  the  extra  f 
inch  due  to  the  brack- 
et. The  newel  post 
must  be  set  out  from 
the  string  f  inch,  and 
it  will  then  align  with 
the  baluster. 
We  have  now  de- 
scribed several  methods  of  dealing  with  strings;  but  there  are  still  a 
few  other  points  connected  with  these  members,  both  housed  and 
open,  that  it  will  be  necessary  to  explain,  before  the  young  work- 
man can  proceed  to  build  a  fair  flight  of  stairs.  The  connection  of 
the  wall  string  to  the  lower  and  upper  floors,  and  the  manner  of 
affixing  the  outer  or  cut  string  to  the  upper  joist  and  to  the  newel. 


Fig.  23.    Connections  of  String  and  Trimmer  at  Upper 
Newel  Post. 


Fig.  23.    Portion  of  Finished  String, 

Stowing  Returned  Nosings 

and  Coves,  also  Bead 

Moulding. 


Fig.  24.    Portion  of  Open,  Bracketed 
String  Stair,  with  Returned  Nos- 
ings and  Coves,  Scroll  Brack- 
ets, and  Bead  Moulding. 


are  matters  that  must  not  be  overlooked.  It  is  the  intention  to  show 
how  these  things  are  accomplished,  and  how  the  stairs  are  made 
strong  by  the  addition  of  rough  strings  or  bearing  carriages. 


277 


16 


STAIR-BUILDING 


Fig.  25.     Side  Elevation  of  Part  of 
Stair  with  Open,  Cut  and 
Mitered    String. 


Fig.  25  gives  a  side  view  of  part  of  a  stair  of  the  better  class,  with 
one  open,  cut  and  mitered  string.  In  Fig.  26,  a  plan  of  this  same  stair- 
way, W  S  shows  the  wall  string;  R  S,  the  rough  string,  placed  there 

to  give  the  structure  strength;  and  0 
S,  the  outer  or  cut  and  mitered  string. 
At  A  A  the  ends  of  the  risers  are  shown, 
and  it  will  be  noticed  that  they  are 
mitered  against  a  vertical  or  riser  line 
of  the  string,  thus  preventing  the  end  of 
the  riser  from  being  seen.  The  other 
end  of  the  riser  is  in  the  housing  in  the 
wall  string.  The  outer  end  of  the  tread 
is  also  mitered  at  the  nosing,  and  a  piece 
of  material  made  or  worked  like  the 
nosing  is  mitered  against  or  returned  at  the  end  of  the  tread. 
The  end  of  this  returned  piece  is  again  returned  on  itself  back  to  the 
string,  as  shown  at  N  in  Fig.  25.  The  moulding,  which  is  f-inch 
cove  in  this  case,  is  also  returned  on  itself  back  to  the  string. 

The  mortises  shown  set  B  B  B  B  (Fig.  26),  are  for  the  balusters. 
It  is  always  the  proper  thing  to  saw  the  ends  of  the  treads  ready  for 
the  balusters  before  the  treads  are  attached  to  the  string;  then,  when 
the  time  arrives  to  put  up  the  rail,  the  back  ends  of  the  mortises  can 
be  cut  out,  when  the  treads  will 
be  ready  to  receive  the  balusters. 
The  mortises  are  dovetailed,  and, 
of  course,  the  tenons  on  the  balus- 
ters must  be  made  to  suit.  The 
treads  are  finished  on  the  bench; 
and  the  return  nosings  are  fitted 
to  them  and  tacked  on,  so  that 
they  may  be  taken  off  to  insert 
the  balusters  when  the  rail  is  being 
put  in  position. 

Fig.  27  shows  the  manner  in 
jvhich  a  wall  string  is  finished  at  the   foot  of  the  stairs.    S  shows  the 
string,  with  moulding  wrought  on  the  upper  edge.    This  moulding 
may  be  a  simple  ogee,  or  may   consist  of  a  number  of  members; 
or  it  may  be  only  a  bead;  or,  again,  the  edge  of  the  string  maybe 


Z      ?\A/S 


7RS 


Fig.  26. 


los 


Plan  of  Part  of  Stair  Shown  in 
Fig.  25. 


278 


STAIR-BUILDING 


17 


I     I J / r  loor 


Fig.  37.    Showing  How  Wall  String  is  Fin- 
ished at  Foot  of  Stair. 


leftquiteplain;this  will  be  regulated  in  great  measure  by  the  style  of 

finish  in  the  hall  or  other  part  of  the  house  in  which  the  stairs  are 

placed.    B  shows  a  portion  of  a  baseboard,  the  top  edge  of  which 

has  the  same  finish  as  the  top  edge  of  the  string.     B  and  A  together 

show  the  junction  of  the  string 
and  base.  F  F  show  blocks 
glued  in  the  angles  of  the  steps 
to  make  them  firm  and  solid. 
Fig.  28  shows  the  manner 
in  which  the  wall  string  S  is 
finished  at  the  top  of  the  stairs. 
It  will  be  noticed  that  the 
moulding  is  worked  round  the 
ease-off  at  A  to  suit  the  width 
of  the  base  at  B.  The  string 
is  cut  to  fit  the  floor  and  to 

butt  against  the  joist.     The  plaster  line  under  the  stairs  and  on  the 

ceiling,  is  also  shown. 

Fig.  29  shows  a  cut  or  open  string  at  the  foot  of  a  stairway,  and 

the  manner  of  dealing  with  it  at  its  junction  with  the  newel  post  K. 

The  point  of  the  string  should 

be  mortised  into  the  newel  2 

inches,  3  inches,  or  4  inches, 

as  shown  by  the  dotted  lines; 

and  the  mortise  in  the  newel 

should  be  cut  near  the  center, 

so  that  the  center  of  the  balus- 
ter  will   be  directly  opposite 

the  central  line  of  the  newel 

post.       The    proper     way  to 

manage  this,  is  to  mark  the 

central  line  of  the  baluster  on 

the  tread,  and  then  make  this 

line  correspond  with  the  central  line  of  the  newel  post.     By  careful 

attention  to  this  point,  much  trouble  will  be  avoided  where  a  turned 

cap  is  used  to  receive  the  lower  part  of  the  rail. 

The  lower  riser  in  a  stair  of  this  kind  will  be  somewhat  shorter 

than  the  ones  above  it,  as  it  must  be  cut  to  fit  between  the  newel  snd 


Fig.  28.    Showing  How  Wall  String  is  Fin- 
ished at  Top  of  Stair. 


279 


18 


STAIR-BUILDING 


Square 


the  wall  stri:ig,    A  portion  of  the  tread,  as  well  as  of  the  riser,  will 
also  butt  against  the  newel,  as  shown  at  W. 

If  there  is  no  spandrel  or  wall  under  the  open  string,  it  may 
run  down  to  the  jfloor  as  shown  by  the  dotted  line  at  0.  The  piece 
0  is  glued  to  the  string,  and  the  moulding  is  worked  on  the  curve. 
If  there  is  a  wall  under  the  string  S,  then  the  base  B,  shown  by  the 
dotted  lines,  will  finish  against  the  string,  and  it  should  have  a  mould- 
ing on  its  upper  edge,  the  same  as  that  on  the  lower  edge  of  the  string, 
if  any,  this  moulding  being  mitered  into  the  one  on  the  string.  When 
there  is  a  base,  the  piece  0  is  of  course  dispensed  with. 

The  square  of  the  newel  should  run  down  by  the  side  of  a  joist 
as  shown,  and  should  be  firmly  secured  to  the  joist  either  by  spiking 

or  by  some  other  suitable  device. 
If  the  joist  runs  the  other  way, 
try  to  get  the  newel  post  against 
it,  if  possible,  either  by  furring 
out  the  joist  or  by  cutting  a  por- 
tion off  the  thickness  of  the  newel. 
The  solidity  of  a  stair  and  the 
firmness  of  the  rail,  depend  very 
much  upon  the  rigidity  of  the 
newel  pest.  The  above  sugges- 
tions are  applicable  where  great 
strength  is  required,  as  in  public 
buildings.  In  ordinary  work,  the  usual  method  is  to  let  the  newel  rest 
on  the  floor. 

Fig.  30  shows  how  the  cut  string  is  finished  at  the  top  of  the  stairs. 
This  illustration  requires  no  explanation  after  the  instructions  already 
given. 

Thus  far,  stairs  having  a  newel  only  at  the  bottom  have  been 
dealt  with.  There  are,  however,  many  modifications  of  straight  and 
return  stairs  which  have  from  two  to  four  or  six  newels.  In  such 
cases,  the  methods  of  treating  strings  at  their  finishing  points  must 
necessarily  be  somewhat  different  from  those  described;  but  the 
general  principles,  as  shown  and  explained,  will  still  hold  good. 

Well-Hole.  Before  proceeding  to  describe  and  illustrate  neweled 
stairs,  it  will  be  proper  to  say  something  about  the  well-hole,  or  the 


Fig.  29.  Showing  How  a  Cut  or  Open  String 
is  Finished  at  Foot  of  Stair. 


280 


STAIR-BUILDING 


19 


opening  through  the  floors,  through  which  the  traveler  on  the  stairs 
ascends  or  descends  from  one  floor  to  another. 

Fig.  31  shows  a  well-hole,  and  the  manner  of  trimming  it.  In 
this  instance  the  stairs  are  placed  against  the  wall;  but  this  is  not 
necessary  in  all  cases,  as  the  well-hole  may  be  placed  in  any  part  of 
the  building. 

The  arrangement  of  the  trimming  varies  according  as  the  joists 
are  at  right  angles  to,  or  are  parallel  to,  the  wall  against  which  the 
stairs  are  built.  In  the  former  case  (Fig.  31,  A)  the  joists  are  cut  short 
and  tusk-tenoned  into  the  heavy  trimmer  T  T,  as  shown  in  the  cut. 
This  trimmer  is  again  tusk-tenoned  into  two  heavy  joists  T  J  and  T  J, 
which  form  the  ends  of  the  well-hole.  These  heavy  joists  are  called 
trimming  joists;  and,  as  they  have  to  carry  a  much  heavier  load  than 
other  joists  on  the  same  floor, 


(i^^mmmmm 


Fig.  30.    Showing  How  a  Cut  or  Open  String 
is  Finished  at  Top  of  Stair. 


they  are  made  much  heavier. 
Sometimes  two  or  three  joists 
are  placed  together,  side  by 
side,  being  bolted  or  spiked 
together  to  give  them  the 
desired  unity  and  strength.  In 
constructions  requiring  great 
strength,  the  tail  and  header 
joists  of  a  well-hole  are  sus- 
pended on  iron  brackets. 

If  the  opening  runs  paral- 
lel with  the  joists  (Fig.  31,  B),  the  timber  forming  the  side  of  the 
well-hole  should  be  left  a  little  heavier  than  the  other  joists,  as  it 
will  have  to  carry  short  trimmers  (T  J  and  T  J)  and  the  joists  run- 
ning into  them.  The  method  here  shown  is  more  particularly 
adapted  to  brick  buildings,  but  there  is  no  reason  why  the  same 
system  may  not  be  applied  to  frame  buildings. 

Usually  in  cheap,  frame  buildings,  the  trimmers  T  T  are  spiked 
against  the  ends  of  the  joists,  and  the  ends  of  the  trimmers  are  sup- 
ported by  being  spiked  to  the  trimming  joists  T  J ,  T  J.  This  is  not 
very  workmanlike  or  very  secure,  and  should  not  be  done,  as  it  is  not 
nearly  so  strong  or  durable  as  the  old  method  of  framing  the  joists  and 
trimmers  together. 

Fig.  32  shows  a  stair  with  three  newels  and  a  platform.     In  this 


281 


20 


STAIR- BUILDING 


example,  the  first  tread  (No.  1)  stands  forward  of  the  newel  post 
two-thirds  of  its  width.  This  is  not  necessary  in  every  case,  but  it  is 
sometimes  done  to  suit  conditions  in  the  hallway.  The  second  newel 
is  placed  at  the  twelfth  riser,  and  supports  the  upper  end  of  the  first 


JLL 


T.J. 


c: 


T.J. 


13" 


U-J 


Fig.  31.    Showing  Ways  of  Trimming  Well-Hole  when  Joists  Run  in  Different 

Directions. 

cut  string  and  the  lower  end  of  the  second  cut  string.  The  platform 
(12)  is  supported  by  joists  which  are  framed  into  the  wall  and  are 
fastened  against  a  trimmer  running  from  the  wall  to  the  newel  along 
the  line  12.  This  is  the  case  only  when  the  second  newel  runs  down 
to  the  floor. 

If  the  second  newel  does  not  run  to  the  floor,  the  framework 
supporting  the  platform  will  need  to  be  built  on  studding.  The  third 
newel  stands  at  the  top  of  the  stairs,  and  is  fastened  to  the  joists  of 
the  second  floor,  or  to  the  trimmer,  somewhat  after  the  manner  of 
fastening  shown  in  Fig.  29.    In  this  example,  the  stairs  have  16  risers 


282 


HOUSE  AT  WASHINGTON,  ILL. 

Herbert  Edmund  Hewitt,  Architect,  Peoria,  111. 

Walls  of  Cement  on  Metal  Lath.    Roofs  Covered  with  Shingles  Stained  Green.  All  Outsid« 
Woodwork  Stained  Dark  Brown.    No  Paint  on  Outside  except  on  Sash. 


Veranda- 


fie^T  Tloob  Plan 


JCCDND  TXDOQ.  RaN 


HOUSE  AT  WASHINGTON,  ILL. 

Herbert  Edmund  Hewitt,  Architect,  Peoria,  111. 

Built  in  1904.    Cost,  about  $4,500.    House  was  Built  for  a  Summer  House,  buf 

Constructed  the  Sam.e  as  if  for  All  Year-Round  Use,  and 

Provided  with  Heating  Plant. 


STAIR-BUILDING 


21 


and  15  treads,  the  platform  or  landing  (12)  making  one  tread.  The 
figure  16  shows  the  floor  in  the  second  story. 

This  style  of  stair  will  require  a  well-hole  in  shape  about  as 
shown  in  the  plan;  and  where  strength  is  required,  the  newel  at  the 
top  should  run  from  floor  to  floor,  and  act  as  a  support  to  the  joists 
and  trimmers  on  which  the  second  floor  is  laid. 

Perhaps  the  best  way  for  a  beginner  to  go  about  building  a  stair- 
way of  this  type,  will  be  to  lay  out  the  work  on  the  lower  floor  in  the 
exact  place  where  the  stairs  are  to  be  erected,  making  everything 


12 


(s=d 


10     9 


5"x5" 


lU. 


6"x6" 


D5"x5" 


Pig.  33.    Stair  with  Three  Newels  and  a  Platform. 

full  size.  There  will  be  no  difficulty  in  doing  this;  and  if  the  positions 
of  the  first  riser  and  the  three  newel  posts  are  accurately  defined, 
the  building  of  the  stairs  will  be  an  easy  matter.  Plumb  lines  can  be 
raised  from  the  lines  on  the  floor,  and  the  positions  of  the  platform 
and  each  riser  thus  easily  determined.  Not  only  is  it  best  to  line  out 
on  the  floor  all  stairs  having  more  than  one  newel;  but  in  constructing 
any  kind  of  stair  it  will  perhaps  be  safest  for  a  beginner  to  lay  out  in 
exact  position  on  the  floor  the  points  over  which  the  treads  and  risers 
will  stand.  By  adopting  this  rule,  and  seeing  that  the  strings,  risers, 
and  treads  correspond  exactly  with  the  lines  on  the  floor,  many  cases 
of  annoyance  will  be  avoided.  Many  expert  stair-builders,  in  fact, 
adopt  this  method  in  their  practice,  laying  out  all  stairs  on  the  floor, 
including  even  the  carriage  strings,  and  they  cut  out  all  the  material 
from  the  lines  obtained  on  the  floor.  By  following  this  method,  one 
can  see  exactly  the  requirements  in  each  particular  case,  and  can 
rectify  any  error  without  destroying  valuable  material. 


283 


22  STAIR-BUILDING 

Laying  Out.  In  order  to  afford  the  student  a  clear  idea  of  what 
is  meant  by  laying  out  on  the  floor,  an  example  of  a  simple  close- 
string  stair  is  given*  In  Fig.  33,  the  letter  F  shows  the  floor  line; 
L  is  the  landing  or  platform;  and  W  is  the  wall  line.  The  stair  is  to 
be  4  feet  wide  over  strings;  the  landing,  4  feet  wide;  the  height  from 
floor  to  landing,  7  feet;  and  the  run  from  start  to  finish  of  the  stair,  8 
feet  8J  inches. 

The  first  thing  to  determine  is  the  dimensions  of  the  treads  and 
risers.  The  wider  the  tread,  the  lower  must  be  the  riser,  as  stated 
before.  No  definite  dimensions  for  treads  and  risers  can  be  given, 
as  the  steps  have  to  be  arranged  to  meet  the  various  difficulties  that 
may  occur  in  the  working  out  of^the  construction;  but  a  common 
rule  is  this:  Make  the  width  of  the  tread,  plus  twice  the  rise,  equal 
to  24  inches.  This  will  give,  for  an  8-inch  tread,  an  8-inch  rise; 
for  a  9-inch  tread,  a  T^-inch  rise;  for  a  10-inch  tread,  a  7-inch  rise, 
and  so  on.  Having  the  height  (7  feet)  and  the  run  of  the  flight  (8  feet 
8^  inches),  take  a  rod  about  one  inch  square,  and  mark  on  it  the  height 
from  floor  to  landing  (7  feet),  and  the  length  of  the  going  or  run  of  the 
flight  (8  feet  8^  inches).  Consider  now  what  are  the  dimensions 
which  can  be  given  to  the  treads  and  risers,  remembering  that  there 
will  be  one  more  riser  than  the  number  of  treads.  Mark  off  on  the 
rod  the  landing,  forming  the  last  tread.  If  twelve  risers  are  desired, 
divide  the  height  (namely,  7  feet)  by  12,  which  gives  7  inches  as  the 
rise  of  each  step.  Then  divide  the  run  (namely,  8  feet  8^  inches)  by 
11,  and  the  width  of  the  tread  is  found  to  be  9|  inches. 

Great  care  must  be  taken  in  making  the  pitch-board  for  marking 
off  the  treads  and  risers  on  the  string.  The  pitch-board  may  be  made 
from  dry  hardwood  about  f  inch  thick.  One  end  and  one  side  must 
be  perfectly  square  to  each  other;  on  the  one,  the  width  of  the  tread 
is  set  off,  and  on  the  other  the  height  of  the  riser.  Connect  the  two 
points  thus  obtained,  and  saw  the  wood  on  this  line.  The  addition 
of  a  gauge-piece  along  the  longest  side  of  the  triangular  piece,  com- 
pletes the  pitch-board,  as  was  illustrated  in  Fig.  15. 

The  length  of  the  wall  and  outer  string  can  be  ascertained  by 
means  of  the  pitch-board.  One  side  and  one  edge  of  the  wall  string 
must  be  squared;  but  the  outer  string  must  be  trued  all  round.  On 
the  strings,  mark  the  positions  of  the  treads  and  risers  by  using  the 
pitch-board  as  already  explained   (Fig.   17).     Strings  are  usually 


384 


STAIR-BUILDING 


23 


made  11  inches  wide,  but  may  be  made  12|  inches  wide  if  necessary 
for  strength. 

After  the  widths  of  risers  and  treads  have  been  determined,  and 
the  string  is  ready  to  lay  out,  apply  the  pitch-board,  marking  the 


Fig.  33.    Method  of  Laying  Out  a  Simple,  Close-String  Stair. 

first  riser  about  9  inches  from  the  end ;  and  number  each  step  in  succes- 
sion. The  thickness  of  the  treads  and  risers  can  be  drawn  by  using 
thin  strips  of  hardwood  made  the  width  of  the  housing  required. 
Now  allow  for  the  wedges  under  the  treads  and  behind  the  risers,  and 
thus  find  the  exact  width  of  the  housing,  which  should  be  about  |  inch 


285 


24  STAIR-BUILDING 

deep;  the  treads  and  risers  will  require  to  be  made  IJ  inches  longer 
than  shown  in  the  plan,  to  allow  for  the  housings  at  both  ends. 

Before  putting  the  stair  together,  be  sure  that  it  can  be  taken 
into  the  house  and  put  in  position  without  trouble.  If  for  any  reason 
it  cannot  be  put  in  after  being  put  together,  then  the  parts  must  be 
assembled,  wedged,  and  glued  up  at  the  spot. 

It  is  essential  in  laying  out  a  plan  on  the  floor,  that  the  exact 
positions  of  the  first  and  last  risers  be  ascertained,  and  the  height  of 
the  story  wherein  the  stair  is  to  be  placed.  Then  draw  a  plan  of  the 
hall  or  other  room  in  which  the  stairs  will  be  located,  including  sur- 
rounding or  adjoining  parts  of  the  room  to  the  extent  of  ten  or  twelve 
feet  from  the  place  assigned  for  the  foot  of  the  stair.  All  the  door- 
ways, branching  passages,  or  windows  which  can  possibly  come  in 
contact  with  the  stair  from  its  commencement  to  its  expected  ter- 
mination or  landing,  must  be  noted.  The  sketch  must  necessarily  in- 
clude a  portion  of  the  entrance  hall  in  one  part,  and  of  the  lobby  or 
landing  in  another,  and  on  it  must  be  laid  out  all  the  lines  of  the 
stair  from  the  first  to  the  last  riser. 

The  height  of  the  story  must  next  be  exactly  determined  and 
taken  on  the  rod ;  then,  assuming  a  height  of  risers  suitable  to  the  place, 
a  trial  is  made  by  division  in  the  manner  previously  explained,  to 
ascertain  how  often  this  height  is  contained  in  the  height  of  the  stoiy. 
The  quotient,  if  there  is  no  remainder,  will  be  the  number  of  risers 
required.  Should  there  be  a  remainder  on  the  first  division,  the  opera- 
tion is  reversed,  the  number  of  inches  in  the  height  being  made  the 
dividend  and  the  before-found  quotient  the  divisor;  and  the  operation 
of  reduction  by  division  is  carried  on  till  the  height  of  the  riser  is 
obtained  to  the  thirty-second  part  of  an  inch.  These  heights  are  then 
set  off  as  exactly  as  possible  on  the  story  rod,  as  shown  in  Fig.  33. 

The  next  operation  is  to  show  the  risers  on  the  sketch.  This 
the  workman  will  find  no  trouble  in  arranging,  and  no  arbitrary  rule 
can  be  given. 

A  part  of  the  foregoing  may  appear  to  be  repetition;  but  it  is  not, 
for  it  must  be  remembered  that  scarcely  any  two  flights  of  stairs  are 
alike  in  run,  rise,  or  pitch,  and  any  departure  in  any  one  dimension 
from  these  conditions  leads  to  a  new  series  of  dimensions  that  must 
be  dealt  with  independently.  The  principle  laid  down,  however, 
applies  to  all  straight  flights  of  stairs;  and  the  student  who  has  followed 


286 


STAIR-BUILDING  25 

closely  and  retained  the  pith  of  what  has  been  said,  will,  if  he  has  a 
fair  knowledge  of  the  use  of  tools,  be  fairly  equipped  for  laying  out 
and  constructing  a  plain,  straight  stair  with  a  straight  rail. 

Plain  stairs  may  have  one  platform,  or  several;  and  they  may 
turn  to  the  right  or  to  the  left,  or,  rising  from  a  platform  or  landing, 
may  run  in  an  opposite  direction  from  their  starting  point. 

When  two  flights  are  necessary  for  a  story,  it  is  desirable  that 
each  flight  should  consist  of  the  same  number  of  steps;  but  this,  of 
course,  will  depend  on  the  form  of  the  staircase,  the  situation  and 
height  of  doors,  and  other  obstacles  to  be  passed  under  or  over,  as 
the  case  may  be. 

In  Fig.  32,  a  stair  is  shown  with  a  single  platform  or  landing  and 
three  newels.  The  first  part  of  this  stair  corresponds,  in  number  of 
risers,  with  the  stair  shown  in  Fig.  33;  the  second  newel  runs  down 
to  the  floor,  and  helps  to  sustain  the  landing.  This  newel  may  simply 
by  a  4  by  4-inch  post,  or  the  whole  space  may  be  inclosed  with  the 
spandrel  of  the  stair.  The  second  flight  starts  from  the  platform  just 
as  the  first  flight  starts  from  the  lower  floor,  and  both  flights  may  be 
attached  to  the  newels  in  the  manner  shown  in  Fig.  29.  The  bottom 
tread  in  Fig.  32  is  rounded  off  against  the  square  of  the  newel  post; 
but  this  cannot  well  be  if  the  stairs  start  from  the  landing,  as  the  tread 
would  project  too  far  onto  the  platform.  Sometimes,  in  high-class 
stairs,  provision  is  made  for  the  first  tread  to  project  well  onto  the 
landing. 

If  there  are  more  platforms  than  one,  the  principles  of  construc- 
tion will  be  the  same;  so  that  whenever  the  student  grasps  the  full 
conditions  governing  the  construction  of  a  single-platform  stair,  he 
will  be  prepared  to  lay  out  and  construct  the  body  of  any  stair  having 
one  or  more  landings.  The  method  of  laying  out,  making,  and  setting 
up  a  hand-rail  will  be  described  later. 

Stairs  formed  with  treads  each  of  equal  width  at  both  ends,  are 
named  straight  flights;  but  stairs  having  treads  wider  at  one  end  than 
the  other  are  known  by  various  names,  as  winding  stairs,  dog-legged 
stairs,  circular  stairs,  or  elliptical  stairs.  A  tread  with  parallel  sides, 
having  the  same  width  at  each  end,  is  called  a  flyer;  while  one  having 
one  wide  end  and  one  narrow,  is  called  a  winder.  These  terms  will 
often  be  made  use  of  in  what  follows. 


389 


26 


STAIR-BUILDING 


The  elevation  and  plan  of  the  stair  shown  in  Fig.  34  may  be 
called  a  dog-legged  stair  with  three  winders  and  six  flyers.  The  flyers, 
however,  may  be  extended  to  any  number.  The  housed  strings  to 
receive  the  winders  are  shown.  These  strings  show  exactly  the  manner 
of  construction.  The  shorter  string,  in  the  corner  from  1  to  4,  which 
is  shown  in  the  plan  to  contain  the  housing  of  the  first  winder  and 

half  of  the  second,  is  put 
up  first,  the  treads  being 
leveled  by  aid  of  a  spirit 
level;  and  the  longer  upper 
string  is  put  in  place  after- 
wards, butting  snugly 
against  the  lower  string  in 
the  corner.  It  is  then 
fastened  firmly  to  the  wall. 
The  winders  are  cut  snugly 
around  the  newel  post,  and 
well  nailed.  Their  risers 
will  stand  one  above 
another  on  the  post;  and 
the  straight  string  above 
the  winders  will  enter  the 
post  on  a  line  with  the  top 
edge  of  the  uppermost 
winder. 

Platform  stairs  are  often 
constructed  so  that  one 
flight  will  run  in  a  direc- 
tion opposite  to  that  of  the 
other  flight,  as  shown  in  Fig.  35.  In  cases  of  this  kind,  the  landing  or 
platform  requires  to  have  a  length  more  than  double  that  of  the  treads, 
in  order  that  both  flights  may  have  the  same  width.  Sometimes, 
however,  and  for  various  reasons,  the  upper  flight  is  made  a  little 
narrower  than  the  lower;  but  this  expedient  should  be  avoided  when- 
ever possible,  as  its  adoption  unbalances  the  stairs.  In  the  example 
before  us,  eleven  treads,  not  including  the  landing,  run  in  one  direction; 
while  four  treads,  including  the  landing,  run  in  the  opposite  direction ; 
or,  as  workmen  put  it,  the  stair  "returns  on  itself."     The  elevation 


Fig.  34.    Elevation  and  Plan  of  Dog-Legged   Stair 
with  Three  Winders  and  Six  Flyers. 


290 


STAIR-BUILDING 


27 


12! 


Laridinq 


13 


10 


14 


!5 


Newel 


16 


Wall 

Fig.  85.    Plan  of  Platform  Stair  Returning  on  Itself. 


shown  in  Fig.  36  illustrates  the  manner  in  which  the  work  is  executed. 
The  various  parts  are  shown  as  follows: 

Fig.  37  is  a  section  of  the  top  landing,  with  baluster  and  rail. 

Fig.  38  is  part  of  the  long  newel,  showing  mortises  for  the  strings. 


Fig.  36.    Elevation  Showing  Construction  of  Platform  Stair  of  which  Plan  is 
Given  in  Fig.  35. 


391 


28 


STAIR-BUILDING 


Fig,  39  represents  part  of  the  bottom  newel,  showing  the  string, 
moulding  on  the  outside,  and  cap. 

Fig.  40  is  a  section  of  the  top  string  enlarged. 

Fig.  41  is  the  newel  at  the  bottom,  as  cut  out  to 
receive  bottom  step.  It  must  be  remembered  that 
there  is  a  cove  under  each  tread.  This  may  be  nailed 
in  after  the  stairs  are  put  together,  and  it  adds  greatly 
to  the  appearance. 

We  may  state  that  stairs  should  have  carriage  pieces 


'/WMmjr 


Fig.  37.  Section  gxed  from  floor  to  floor,  under  the  stairs,  to  support 

of  Top  Landing,  '  '  rr 

Baiuster.andRaii.  them.     These  may  be  notched  under  the  steps;  or 
rough  brackets  may  be  nailed  to  the  side  of  the  car- 
riage, and  carried  under  each  riser  and  tread. 

There  is  also  a  framed  spandrel  which  helps  materially  to  carry 
the  weight,  makes  a  sound  job,  and 
adds  greatly  to  the  appearance.  This 
spandrel  may  be  made  of  H-inch 
material,  with  panels  and  mouldings 
on  the  front  side,  as  shown  in  Fig.  36. 
The  joint  between  the  top  and  bottom 
rails  of  the  spandrel  at  the  angle, 
should  be  made  as  shown  in  Fig.  42 
with  a  cross-tongue,  and  glued  and 
fastened  with  long  screws.  Fig.  43  is 
simply  one  of  the  panels  showing  the 
miters  on  the  moulding  and  the  shape  Mor^ses  in  Lonf 

n    ,  .  *       .1  •  Newel. 

of  the  sections.    As  there  is  a  conven- 
ient space  under  the  landing,  it  is  commonly  used  for  a  closet. 

In  setting  out  stairs,  not  only  the  proportions  of  treads  and  risers 
must  be  considered,  but  also  the  material  available. 
As  this  material  runs,  as  a  rule,  in  certain  sizes,  it  is 
best  to  work  so  as  to  conform  to  it  as  nearly  as 
possible.  In  ordinary  stairs,  11  by  1-inch  common 
stock  is  used  for  strings  and  treads,  and  7-inch  by 
f -inch  stock  for  risers ;  in  stairs  of  a  better  class. 
Fig.  40.  Eniarg-  wider  and  thicker  material  may  be  used.  The  rails 
|d|ectionof  Top     ^^^  ^^^  ^^  various  heights;  2  feet  8  inches  ma7  be 


Fig.  39.  Mortises 
in  Lower  Newel 
for  String,  Out- 
side Mo  ulding,  and 
Cap. 


292 


STAIR-BUILDING 


29 


taken  as  an  average  height  on  the  stairs,  and  3  feet  1  inch  on  landings, 
with  two  balusters  to  each  step. 

In  Fig,  36,  all  the  newels  and  balusters  are  shown  square;  but 
it  is  much  better,  and  is  the  more  common  practice,  to  have  them 


^ 


Ne\A/el 


V 


Fig.  41.  Newel  Cub 
to  Keceive  Bottom 
Step. 


Fig.  43.  Showing  Method  of  Joining 
Spandrel  Rails,  with  Cross-Tongue 
Glued  and  Screwed. 


turned,  as  this  gives  the  stairs  a  much  more  artistic  appearance. 
The  spandrel  under  the  string  of  the  stairway  shows  a  style  in  which 
many  stairs  are  finished  in  hallways  and  other  similar  places.  Plaster 
is  sometimes  used  instead  of  the  panel  work,  but  is  not  nearly  so  good 
as  woodwork.  The  door  under  the  landing  may  open  into  a  closet, 
or  may  lead  to  a  cellarway,  or  through  to  some  other  room. 

In  stairs  with  winders,  the  width  of  a  winder  should,  if  possible, 
be  nearly  the  width  of  the  regular  tread,  at 
a  distance  of  14  inches  from  the  narrow 
end,  so  that  the  length  of  the  step  in 
walking  up  or  down  the  stairs  may  not 
be  interrupted;  and  for  this  reason  and 
several  others,  it  is  always  best  to  have 
three  winders  only  in  each  quarter-turn. 
Above  all,  avoid  a  four-winder  turn,  as 
this  makes  a  breakneck  stair,  which  is 
more  difficult  to  construct  and  incon- 
venient to  use. 

Bullnose  Tread.  No  other  stair,  perhaps,  looks  so  well  at  the 
starting  point  as  one  having  a  bullnose  step.  In  Fig.  44  are  shown  a 
plan  and  elevation  of  a  flight  of  stairs  having  a  bullnose  tread.  The 
method  of  obtaining  the  lines  and  setting  out  the  body  of  the  stairs. 


Mouldin 


Fig.  43.  Panel  in  Spandrel,  Show 

ing  Miters  on  Moulding,  and 

Shape  of  Section. 


293 


30 


STAIR-BUILDING 


is  the  same  as  has  already  been  explained  for  other  stairs,  with  the 
exception  of  the  first  two  steps,  which  are  made  with  circular  ends, 
as  shown  in  the  plan.  These  circular  ends  are  worked  out  as  here- 
after described,  and  are  attached  to  the  newel  and  string  as  shown. 


Scale  of& 


Feet 


Vj^ 


Fig.  44.    Elevation  and  Plan  of  Stair  with  BuUnose  Tread. 

The  example  shows  an  open,  cut  string  with  brackets.  The  spandrel 
under  the  string  contains  short  panels,  and  makes  a  very  handsome 
finish.  The  newels  and  balusters  in  this  case  are  turned,  and  the  lattei 
have  cutwork  panels  between  them. 


294 


STAIR-BUILDING 


31 


Fig.  45.  Section 
through  Bullnose 
Step. 


Bullnose  steps  are  usually  built  up  with  a  three- 
piece  block,  as  shown  in  Fig.  45,  which  is  a  sec- 
tion through  the  step  indicating  the  blocks,  tread, 
and  riser. 

Fig.  46  is  a  plan  showing  how  the  veneer  of  the 
riser  is  prepared  before  being  bent  into  position.  The  block  A  indi- 
cates a  wedge  which  is  glued  and  driven  home  after  the  veneer  is 
put  in  place.  This  tightens  up  the  work  and  makes  it  sound  and 
clear.  Figs.  47  and  48  show  other  methods  of  forming  bullnose  steps. 
Fig.  49  is  the  side  elevation  of  an  open-string  stair  with  bullnose 
steps  at  the  bottom; 
while  Fig.  50  is  a  view 
showing  the  lower  end 
of  the  string,  and  the 
manner  in  which  it  is 
prepared  for  fixing  to 
the  blocks  of  the  step. 
Fig.  51  is  a  section 
through  the  string,  showing  the  bracket,  cove,  and  projection  of  tread 
over  same. 

Figs.  52  and  53  show  respectively  a  plan  and  vertical  section  of 
the  bottom  part  of  the  stair.  The  blocks  are  shown  at  the  ends  of  the 
steps  (Fig.  53),  with  the  veneered  parts  of  the  risers  going  round  them; 
also  the  position  where  the  string  is  fixed  to  the  blocks  (Fig.  52) ;  and 


Fig.  46. 


Plan  Showing  Preparation  of  Veneer  before 
Bending  into  Position. 


NesA/el 


Fig.  47.  Fig.  48. 

Methods  of  Forming  Bullnose  Steps. 

the  tenon  of  the  newel  is  marked  on  the  upper  step.  The  section  (Fig. 
53)  shows  the  manner  in  which  the  blocks  are  built  up  and  the  newel 
tenoned  into  them. 


295 


32 


STAIR-BUILDING 


Fig.  49.    Side  Elevation  of  Open-String 
Stair  with  Bullnose  Steps. 


The  newel,  Fig.  49,  is  rather  an 
elaborate  affair,  being  carved  at  the 
base  and  Oxi  the  body,  and  having 
a  carved  rosette  planted  in  a  small, 
sunken  panel  on  three  sides,  the  rail 
butting  against  the  fourth  side. 

Open-Newel  Stairs.  Before  leav- 
ing the  subject  of  straight  and  dog- 
legged  stairs,  the  student  should  be 
made  familiar  with  at  least  one 
example  of  an  open-newel  stair.  As 
the  same  principles  of  construction 
govern  all  styles  of  open-newel 
stairs,  a  single  example  will  be  sufficient.  The  student  must,  of 
course,  understand  that  he  himself  is  the  greatest  factor  in  planning 
stairs  of  this  type ;  that  the  setting  out  and  design- 
ing will  generally  devolve  on  him.  By  exercising 
a  little  thought  and  foresight,  he  can  so  arrange 
his  plan  that  a  minimum  of  both  labor  and  material 
will  be  required. 

Fig.   54  shows  a  plan  of  an  open-newel  stair 

having  two  landings  and  closed  strings,  shown  in 

elevation  in  Fig.  55.    The  dotted  lines  show  the 

carriage  timbers  and  trimmers,  also  the  lines  of 

risers;  while  the  treads  are  shown  by  full  lines. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  strings  and  trimmers 

at  the  first  landing  are  framed  into  the  shank  of  the  second  newel 

post,  which  runs  down  to  the  floor;  while  the  top  newel  drops  below 
the  fascia,  and  has  a  turned  and  carved  drop.  This  drop 
hangs  below  both  the  fascia  and  the  string.  The  lines 
of  treads  and  risers  are  shown  by  dotted  lines  and 
crosshatched  sections.  The  position  of  the  carriage 
timbers  is  shown  both  in  the  landings  and  in  the  runs 
Fig.  51.  Section  of  the  stairs,  the  projecting  ends  of  these  timbers  being 

mroug      r  ng.    g^^^pp^g^^  ^^  j^g  resting  on  the  wall.    A  scale  of  the  plan 

and  elevation  is  attached   to  the  plan.     In  Fig.  55,  a  story  rod  is 

shown  at  the  right,  with  the  number  of  risers  spaced  off  thereon. 

The  design  of  the  newels,  spandrel,  framing,  and  paneling  is  shown. 


Fig.  50.  Lower  End 
of  String  to  Connect 
with   Bullnose  Step. 


296 


STAIR-BUILDING 


3? 


Fig.  52.    Plan  of  Bottom  Part 
of  BuUnose  Stair 


Fig.  53.    Vertical  Section  through 
Bottom  Part  of  BuUnose  Stair. 


Only  the  central  carriage  timbers  are  shown  in  Fig.  54;  but  in  a 
stair  of  this  width,  there  ought  to  be  two  other  timbers,  not  so  heavy, 
perhaps,  as  the  central  one,  yet  strong  enough  to  be  of  service  in  lend- 
ing additional  strength  to  the  stairway,  and  also  to  help  carry  the  laths 
and  plaster  or  the  paneling  which  may  be  necessary  in  completing 
the  under  side  or  soffit.  The  strings  being  closed,  the  butts  of  their 
balusters  must  rest  on  a  subrail  which  caps  the  upper  edge  of  the 
outer  string. 


7  Feet 


Fig.  54.    Plan  of  Open-Newel  Stair,  with  Two  Landings  and  Closed  Strings. 


297 


34 


STAIR-BUILDING 


The  first  newel  should  pass  through  the  lower  floor,  and,  to 
insure  solidity,  should  be  secured  by  bolts  to  a  joist,  as  shown  in  the 
elevation.  The  rail  is  attached  to  the  newels  in  the  usual  manner, 
with  handrail  bolts  or  other  suitable  device.  The  upper  newel  should 
be  made  fast  to  the  joists  as  shown,  either  by  bolts  or  in  some  other 


Landing  Joist      \ 


Trimmer 


Pitching 


Fig.  55.    Elevation  of  Open-Newel  Stair  Shown  in  Plan  in  Fig.  54. 

efficient  manner.  The  intermediate  newels  are  left  square  on  the 
shank  below  the  stairs,  and  may  be  fastened  in  the  floor  below  either 
by  mortise  and  tenon  or  by  making  use  of  joint  bolts. 

Everything  about  a  stair  should  be  made  solid  and  sound;  and 
every  joint  should  set  firmly  and  closely;  or  a  shaky,  rickety,  squeaky 
stair  will  be  the  result,  which  is  an  abomination. 

Stairs  with  Curved  Turns.  Sufficient  examples  of  stairs  having 
angles  of  greater  or  less  degree  at  the  turn  or  change  of  direction,  to 


298 


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W 


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STAIR-BUILDING 


35 


enable  the  student  to  build  any  stair  of  this  class,  have  now  been 
given.  There  are,  however,  other  types  of  stairs  in  common  use, 
whose  turns  are  curved,  and  in  which  newels  are  employed  only  at 
the  foot,  and  sometimes  at  the  finish  of  the  flight.  These  curved  turns 
may  be  any  part  of  a  circle,  according  to  the  requirements  of  the  case, 
but  turns  of  a  quarter-circle  or  half-circle  are  the  more  common. 
The  string  forming  the  curve  is  called  a  cylinder,  or  part  of  a  cylinder, 
as  the  case  may  be.  The  radius  of  this  circle  or  cylinder  may  be  any 
length,  according  to  the  space  assigned  for  the  stair.  The  opening 
around  which  the  stair  winds  is  called  the  well-hole. 

Fig.  56  shows  a  portion  of  a  stairway  having  a  well-hole  with 
a  7-inch  radius.  This  stair  is  rather  peculiar,  as  it  shows  a  quarter- 
space  landing,  and  a  quarter-space  having 
three  winders.  The  reason  for  this  is  the 
fact  that  the  landing  is  on  a  level  with  the 
floor  of  another  room,  into  which  a  door 
opens  from  the  landing.  This  is  a  problem 
very  often  met  with  in  practical  work, 
where  the  main  stair  is  often  made  to  do 
the  work  of  two  flights  because  of  one  floor 
being  so  much  lower  than  another. 

A  curved  stair,  sometimes  called  a 
geometrical  stair,  is  shown  in  Fig.  57, 
containing  seven  winders  in  the  cylinder 
or    well -hole,     the    first    and    last    aligning    with    the    diameter. 

In  Fig.  58  is  shown  another  example  of  this  kind  of  stair,  con- 
taining nine  winders  in  the  well-hole,  with  a  circular  wall-string. 
It  is  not  often  that  stairs  are  built  in  this  fashion,  as  most  stairs  having 
a  circular  well-hole  finish  against  the  wall  in  a  manner  similar  to  that 
shown  in  Fig.  57. 

Sometimes,  however,  the  workman  will  be  confronted  with  a 
plan  such  as  shown  in  Fig.  58;  and  he  should  know  how  to  lay  out 
the  wall-string.  In  the  elevation.  Fig.  58,  the  string  is  shown  to  be 
straight,  similar  to  the  string  of  a  common  straight  flight.  This  results 
from  having  an  equal  width  in  the  winders  along  the  wall-string,  and, 
as  we  have  of  necessity  an  equal  width  in  the  risers,  the  development 
of  the  string  is  merely  a  straight  piece  of  board,  as  in  an  ordinary 
straight  flight.    In  laying  out  the  string,  all  we  have  to  do  is  to  make 


,+ 

It 7_e ^ 

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(- 

0 

o 
o 

■10 

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0) 

1 

w 

\x 

"10 

Uan<ding 

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/> 

e-14-^ 

Fig.  56.    Stair  Serving  for  Two 

Flights,  with  Mid-Floor 

Landing. 


299 


36 


STAIR-BUILDING 


a  common  pitch-board,  and,  with  it  as  a  templet,  niark  the  Hnes  of 
the  treads  and  risers  on  a  straight  piece  of  board,  as  shown  at  1,  2,  3, 
4,  etc. 

If  you  can  manage  to  bend  the  string  without  kerfing  (grooving), 
it  will  be  all  the  better;  if  not,  the  kerfs  (grooves)  must  be  parallel  to 
the  rise.  You  can  set  out  with  a  straight  edge,  full  size,  on  a  rough 
platform,  just  as  shown  in  the  diagram;  and 
when  the  string  is  bent  and  set  in  place,  the 
risers  and  winders  will  have  their  correct 
positions. 

To  bend  these  strings  or  otherwise  prepare 
them  for  fastening  against  the  wall,  perhaps 
the  easiest  way  is  to  saw  the  string  with  a  fine 
saw,  across  the  face,  making  parallel  grooves. 
This  method  of  bending  is  called  kerfing, 
above  referred  to.  The  kerfs  or  grooves 
must  be  cut  parallel  to  the  lines  of  the  risers,  so  as  to  be  vertical  when 
the  string  is  in  place.  This  method,  however — handy  though  it  may 
be — is  not  a  good  one,  inasmuch  as  the  saw  groove  will  show  more  or 
less  in  the  finished  work. 

Another  method  is  to  build  up  or  stave  the  string.    There  are 


\\ 


Fig.  57.    Geometrical  Stair 
with  Seven  Winders. 


I    aS'Aseyes    une 


Fig.  58.    Plan  of  Circular  Stair  and  Layout  of  Wall  String 
for  Same. 


several  ways  of  doing  this.  In  one,  comparatively  narrow  pieces  are 
cut  to  the  required  curve  or  to  portions  of  it,  and  are  fastened  together, 
edge  to  edge,  with  glue  and  screws,  until  the  necessary  width  is 
obtained  (see  Fig.  59).  The  heading  joints  may  be  either  butted  or 
beveled,  the  latter  being  stronger,  and  should  be  cross-tongued. 

Fig.  60  shows  a  method  that  may  be  followed  when  a  wide  string 
is  required,  or  a  piece  curbed  in  the  direction  of  its  width  is  needed 


300 


STAIR-BUILDING 


37 


for  any  purpose.  The  pieces  are  stepped  over  each  other  to  suit  the 
desired  curve;  and  though  shown  square-edged  in  the  figure,  they  are 
usually  cut  beveled,  as  then,  by  reversing  them,  two  may  be  cut  out 
of  a  batten. 

Panels  and  quick  sweeps  for  similar  purposes  are  obtained  in  the 
manner  shown  in  Fig.  61,  by  joining  up  narrow  boards  edge  to  edge 


Fig.  59. 


Methods  of  Building  Up  Strings. 


Fig.  60. 


at  a  suitable  bevel  to  give  the  desired  curve.  The  internal  curve  is 
frequently  worked  approximately,  before  gluing  up.  The  numerous 
joints  incidental  to  these  methods  limit  their  uses  to  painted  or  unim- 
portant work. 

In  Fig.  62  is  shown  a  wreath-piece  or  curved  portion  of  the 
outside  string  rising  around  the  cylinder  at  the  half-space. 
This  is  formed  by  reducing  a  short  piece  of  string  to  a  veneer 
between  the  springings;  bending  it  upon  a  cylinder  made  to  fit  the 
plan;  then,  when  it  is  secured  in  position,  filling  up  the  back  of  the 
veneer  with  staves  glued  across  it;  and,  finally,  gluing  a  piece  of  canvas 
over  the  whole.  The  appearance  of  the 
wreath-pi  ce  after  it  has  been  built  up  and 
removed  l/om  the  cylinder  is  indicated  in 
Fig.  63.  The  canvas  back  has  been  omitted 
to  show  the  staving;  and  the  counter-wedge 
key  used  for  connecting  the  wreath-piece 
with  the  string  is  shown.  The  wreath- 
piece  is,  at  this  stage,  ready  for  marking 
the  outlines  of  the  steps. 

Fig.  62  also  shows  the  drum  or  shape  around  which  strings  may 
be  bent,  whether  the  strings  are  formed  of  veneers,  staved,  or  kerfed. 
Another  drum  or  shape  is  shown  in  Fig.  64.  In  this,  a  portion  of  a 
cylinder  is  formed  in  the  manner  clearly  indicated;  and  the  string, 
being  set  out  on  a  veneer  board  sufficiently  thin  to  bend  easily,  is  laid 


Fig.  61.    Building  Up  a  Curved 
Panel  or  Quick  Sweep. 


301 


38 


STAIR-BUILDING 


down  round  the  curve,  such  a  number  of  pieces  of  Hke  thickness  being 
then  added  as  will  make  the  required  thickness  of  the  string.  In 
working  this  method,  glue  is  introduced  between  the  veneers,  which 


Fig.  62.    Wreath- 
Piece  Bent 
around  Cylinder. 


Fig.  63.  CompletedWreath- 
Piece  Removed  from 
Cylinder. 


Fig.  64.    Another  Drum  or 
Shape   for    Building 

Curved  Strings. 


are  then  quickly  strained  down  to  the  curved  piece  with  hand  screws. 
A  string  of  almost  any  length  can  be  formed  in  this  way,  by  gluing 
a  few  feet  at  a  time,  and  when  that  dries,  removing  the  cylindrical 
curve  and  gluing  down  more,  until  the  whole  is  completed.  Several 
other  methods  will  suggest  themselves  to  the  workman,  of  building  up 
good,  solid,  circular  strings. 

One  method  of  laying  out  the  treads  and  risers  around  a  cylinder 
or  drum,  is  shown  in  Fig.  65.  The  line  D  shows  the  curve  of  the  rail. 
The  lines  showing  treads  and  risers  may  be  marked  off  on  the  cylinder, 
or  they  may  be  marked  off  after  the  veneer  is  bent  around  the  drum  or 
cylinder. 

There  are  various  methods  of  making  inside  cylinders  or  wells, 
and  of  fastening  same  to  strings.  One  method  is  shown  in  Fig.  66. 
This  gives  a  strong  joint  when  properly  made.  It  will  be  noticed  that 
the  cylinder  is  notched  out  on  the  back;  the  two  blocks  shown  at  the 
back  of  the  offsets  are  wedges  driven  in  to  secure  the  cylinder  in  place, 
and  to  drive  it  up  tight  to  the  strings.  Fig.  67  shows  an  8-inch  well- 
hole  with  cylinder  complete ;  also  the  method  of  trimming  and  finish- 
ing same.  The  cylinder,  too,  is  shown  in  such  a  manner  that  its  con- 
struction will  be  readily  understood. 

Stairs  having  a  cylindrical  or  circular  opening  always  require 
a  weight  support  underneath  them.  This  support,  which  is  generally 
made  of  rough  lumber,  is  called  the  carriage,  because  it  is  supposed 


302 


STAIR-BUILDING 


39 


to  carry  any  reasonable  load  that  may  be  placed  upon  the  stairway. 
Fig.  68  shows  the  under  side  of  a  half-space  stair  having  a  carriage 
beneath  it.    The  timbers  marked  S  are  of  rough  stuff,  and  may  be 
2-inch  by  6-inch  or  of  greater  dimensions.    If  they 
are  cut  to  fit  the  risers  and  treads,  they  will  require 
to  be  at  least  2-inch  by  8-inch. 

In  preparing  the  rough  carriage  for  the 
winders,  it  will  be  best  to  let  the  back  edge  of  the 
tread  project  beyond  the  back  of  the  riser  so  that  it 
forms  a  ledge  as  shown  under  C  in  Fig.  69.  Then 
fix  the  cross-carriage  pieces  under  the  winders, 
with  the  back  edge  about  flush  with  the  backs 
of  risers,  securing  one  end  to  the  well  with  screws, 
and  the  other  to  the  wall  string  or  the  wall.  Now 
cut  short  pieces,  marked  0  0  (Fig.  68),  and  fix  them  tightly  in  between 
the  cross-carriage  and  the  back  of  the  riser  as  at  5  5  in  the  section, 
Fig.  69.  These  carriages  should  be  of  3-inch  by  2-inch  material. 
Now  get  a  piece  of  wood,  1-inch  by  3-inch,  and  cut  pieces  C  C  to  fit 
tightly  between  the  top  back  edge  of  the  winders  (or  the  ledge)  and 
the  pieces  marked  B  B  in  section.  This  method  makes  a  very 
sound  and  strong  job  of  the  winders;  and  if  the  stuff  is  roughly 
planed,  and  blocks  are  glued  on  each  side  of  the  short  cross-pieces 
0  0  0,  it  is  next  to  impossible  for  the  winders  ever  to  spring  or 
squeak.    When  the  weight  is  carried  in  this  manner,  the  plasterer  will 


Fig.  65.    Laying  Out 

Treads  and  Risers 

around  a  Drum. 


Fig.  66.    One  Method 

of  Making  an  Inside 

Well. 


Fig.  67.    Construction  and 

Trimming  of  8-Inch 

Well-Hole. 


Jiave  very  little  trouble  in  lathing  so  that  a  graceful  soffit  will  be  made 
under  the  stairs. 

The  manner  of  placing  the  main  stringers  of  the  carriage  S  S, 
is  shown  at  A,  Fig.  69.    Fig.  68  shows  a  complete  half-space  stair; 


303 


40 


STAIR-BUILDING 


one-half  of  this,  finished  as  shown,  will  answer  well  for  a  quarter-space 
stair. 

Another  method  of  forming  a  carriage  for  a  stair  is  shown  in 
Fig.  70.  This  is  a  peculiar  but  very  handsome  stair,  inasmuch  as  the 
first  and  the  last  four  steps  are  parallel,  but  the  remainder  balance  or 
dance.    The  treads  are  numbered  in  this  illustration;  and  the  plan  of 

the  handrail  is  shown  ex- 
tending from  the  scroll  at 
the  bottom  of  the  stairs  to 
the  landing  on  the  second 
story.  The  trimmer  T  at 
the  top  of  the  stairs  is  also 
shown ;  and  the  rough  strings 
or  carriages,  R  S,R  S,R  S, 
are  represented  by  dotted 
lines. 

This  plan  represents  a 
stair  with  a  curtail  step, 
and  a  scroll  handrail  rest- 
ing over  the  curve  of  the 
curtail  step.  This  type  of 
stair  is  not  now  much  in 
vogue  in  this  country, 
though  it  is  adopted  occa- 
sionally in  some  of  the  larger  cities.  The  use  of  heavy  newel  posts 
instead  of  curtail  steps,  is  the  prevailing  style  at  present. 

In  laying  out  geometrical  stairs,  the  steps  are  arranged  on  prin- 
ciples already  described.  The  well-hole  in  the  center  is  first  laid  down 
and  the  steps  arranged  around  it.  In  circular  stairs  with  an  open  well- 
hole,  the  handrail  being  on  the  inner  side,  the  width  of  tread  for  the 
steps  should  be  set  off  at  about  18  inches  from  the  handrail,  this 
giving  an  approximately  uniform  rate  of  progress  for  anyone  ascending 
or  descending  the  stairway.  In  stairs  with  the  rail  on  the  outside,  as 
sometimes  occurs,  it  will  be  sufficient  if  the  treads  have  the  proper 
width  at  the  middle  point  of  their  length. 

Where  a  flight  of  stairs  will  likely  be  subject  to  great  stress  and 
wear,  the  carriages  should  be  made  much  heavier  than  indicated  in 


/ 

\ 

a 

i 

^^ 

4 

^ 

1 1 

1 L 

\ 

B 

A 

D 

s      s 

s 

5       S 

5 

-*>  , 

I 

■ — ^ 

Pig.  68.    Under  Side  of  Half- Space  Stair,  with 
Carriages  and  Cross-Carriages. 


304 


STAIR-BUILDING 


41 


Fig.  69.    Method  of  Reinforcing  Stair. 


the  foregoing  figures;  and  there  may  be  cases  when  it  will  be  necessary 
to  use  iron  bolts  in  the  sides  of  the  rough  strings  in  order  to  give  them 
greater  strength.    This  necessity,  however,  will  arise  only  in  the  case 

of  stairs  built  in  public  buildings, 
churches,  halls,  factories,  ware- 
houses, or  other  buildings  of  a  simi- 
lar kind.  Sometimes,  even  in  house 
stairs,  it  may  be  wise  to  strengthen 
the  treads  and  risers  by  spiking 
pieces  of  board  to  the  rough  string, 
ends  up,  fitting  them  snugly  against 
the  under  side  of  the  tread  and  the 
back  of  the  riser.  The  method  of  doing  this  is  shown  in  Fig.  71,  in 
which  the  letter  0  shows  the  pieces  nailed  to  the  string. 

Types  of  Stairs  in  Common  Use.  In  order  to  make  the  student 
familiar  with  types  of  stairs  in  general  use  at  the  present  day,  plans 
of  a  few  of  those  most  likely 
to  be  met  with  will  now  be 
given. 

Fig.  72  is  a  plan  of  a 
straight  stair,  with  an  ordi- 
nary cylinder  at  the  top 
provided  for  a  return  rail 
on  the  landing.  It  also 
shows  a  stretch-out  stringer 
at  the  starting. 

Fig.  73  is  a  plan  of  a 
stair  with  a  landing  and 
return  steps. 

Fig.  74  is  a  plan  of  a 
stair  with  an  acute  angular 
landing  and  cylinder. 

Fig.    75  illustrates  the 
same  kind  of  stair  as  Fig.  74,  the    angle,   however,    being   obtuse. 
Fig.  76  exhibits  a  stair  having  a  half-turn  with  two  risers  on  land- 
ings. 

Fig.  77  is  a  plan  of  a  quarter-space  stair  with  four  winders. 
Fig.  78  shows  a  stair  similar  to  Fig.  77,  but  with  six  winders. 


Fig.  70.  Plan  Showing  One  Method  of  Constructing 
Carriage  and  Trimming  Winding  Stair. 


305 


42 


STAIR-BUILDING 


Fig.  71.    Reinforcing  Treads  and  Risers 
by  Blocks  Nailed  to  String. 


Fig.  73.     Plan  of  Straight  Stair  with 
Cylinder  at  Top  for  Return  Rail. 

Fig.  79  shows  a  stair  having  five 
dancing  winders. 

Fig.  80  is  a  plan  of  a  half-space 
stair  having  five  dancing  winders 
and  a  quarter-space  landing. 
Fig.  81  shows  a  half-space  stair  with  dancing  winders  all  around 
the  cylinder. 

Fig.  82  shows  a  geometrical  stair  having 
winders  all  around  the  cylinder. 

Fig.  83  shows  the  plan  and  elevation  of 
stairs  which  turn  around  a  central  post.  This 
kind  of  stair  is  frequently  used  in  large  stores 
and  in  clubhouses  and  other  similar  places, 
and  has  a  very  graceful  appearance.  It  is  not 
very  difiicult  to  build  if  properly  planned. 

The  only  form  of  stair  not  shown  which  the 
student  may  be  called  upon  to  build,  would 
very  likely  be  one  having  an  elliptical  plan; 
but,  as  this  form  is  so  seldom  used — being 
found,  in  fact,  only  in  public  buildings  or 
great  mansions — it  rarely  falls  to  the  lot  of 
the  ordinary  workman  to  be  called  upon  to  design  or  construct  a 
stairway  of  this  type. 


r\ 

-^      ■ — ^ 

Fig.  73.    Plan  of  Stair  with 
Landing  and  Return  Steps. 


Fig.  74.  Plan  of  Stair  with  Acute- Angle 
Landing  and  Cylinder. 


Fig.  75.  Plan  of  Stair  with  Obtuse- Angle 
Landing  and  Cylinder. 


306 


STAIR-BUILDING 


43 


Pig.  77.     Quarter-Space  Stair  with 
Four  Winders. 


Fig.  76.  Half-Turn  Stair  with 
Two  Risers  on  Landings. 


Fig.  79.    Stair  with  Five  Dancing  Winders. 


) 


Fig.  78.    Quarter-Space  Stair  with  Six 
Winders. 


Fig.  81.    Half-Space  Stair  with 

Dancing     Winders      all 

around  Cylinder. 


GEOMETRICAL    STAIRWAYS    AND 
HANDRAILING 


Fig.  80.  Half-Space  Stair  with         ^he  term  geometrical  is  applied  to  stair- 
""QuanTr^plcTLaSf        ways  having  any  kind  of  curve  for  a  plan. 

The  rails  over  the  steps  are  made  con- 
tinuous from  one  story  to  another.  The  resulting  winding  or 
twisting  pieces  are  called  wreaths. 

Wreaths.  The  construction  of  wreaths  is  based  on  a  few 
geometrical  problems — namely,  the  projection  of  straight  and  curved 
lines  into  an  oblique  plane;  and  the  finding  of  the  ^ngle  of  inclination 
of  the  plane  into  which  the  lines  and  curves  are  projected.    This  angle 


307 


44 


STAIR-BUILDING 


Fig.  83.     Plan  and  Eleva- 
tion of  Stairs  Turning 
around  a  Central 
Post. 


Fig.  82.  Geometrical  Stair  with 
Winders  all  Around  Cylinder. 

is  called  the  bevel,    and    by    its    use 
the    wreath  is  made  to  twist. 

In  Fig.  84  is  shown  an  obtuse- 
angle  plan;  in  Fig.  85,  an  acute-angle 
plan:  and  in  Fig.  86,  a  semicircle  en- 
closed within  straight  lines. 

Projection.  A  knowledge  of  how 
to  project  the  lines  and  curves  in  each 
of  these  plans  into  an  oblique  plane, 
and  to  find  the  angle  of  inclination  of 
the  plane,  will  enable  the  student  to 
construct  any  and  all  kinds  of  wreaths. 

The  straight  lines  a,  b,  c,  d  in  the  plan.  Fig.  86,  are  known  as 
tangents;  and  the  curve,  the  central  line  of  the  plan  wreath. 

The  straight  line  across  from  nto  n  is  the  diameter;  and  the 
perpendicular  line  from  it  to  the  lines  c  and  b  is  the  radius. 

A  tangent  line  may  be  defined  as  a  line  touching  a  curve  without 
cutting  it,  and  is  made  use  of  in  handrailing  to  square  the  joints  of  the 
wreaths. 

Tangent  System.  The  tangent  system  of  handrailing  takes  its 
name  from  the  use  made  of  the  tangents  for  this  purpose. 

In  Fig.  86,  it  is  shown  that  the  joints  connecting  the  central  line 
of  rail  with  the  plan  rails  w  of  the  straight  flights,  are  placed  right  at 
the  springing;  that  is,  they  are  in  line  with  the  diameter  of  the  semi- 
circle, and  square  to  the  side  tangents  a  and  d. 

The  center  joint  of  the  crown  tangents  is  shown  to  be  square  to 
tangents  b  and  c.  When  these  lines  are  projected  into  an  oblique 
plane,  the  joints  of  the  wreaths  can  be  made  to  butt  square  by  applying 
the  bevel  to  them. 


308 


STAIR-BUILDING 


45 


Joint 


Fig.  84.    Obtuse- Angle  Plan. 


Joint 


All  handrail  wreaths  are  assumed  to  rest  on  an  oblique  plane 
while  ascending  around  a  well-hole,  either  in  connecting  two  flights 
or  in  connecting  one  flight  to  a 
landing,  as  the  case  may  be.  /Tangent 

In  the  simplest  cases  of 
construction,  the  wreath  rests 
on  an  inclined  plane  that  in- 
clines in  one  direction  only,  to 

either  side  of  the  well-hole;  while  in  other  cases  it  rests  on  a  plane 
that  inclines  to  two  sides. 

Fig.  87  illustrates  what  is  meant  by  a  plane  inclining  in  one 

direction.  It  will  be  noticed 
that  the  lower  part  of  the  figure 
is  a  reproduction  of 'the  quad- 
rant enclosed  by  the  tangents 
a  and  b  in  Fig.  86.  The 
quadrant,  Fig.  87,  represents  a 
central  line  of  a  wreath  that  is 
to  ascend  from  the  joint  on  the 
plan  tangent  a  the  height  of  h 
above  the  tangent  b. 
'  In  Fig.  88,  a  view  of  Fig.  87 
is  given  in  which  the  tangents  a 
and  b  are  shown  in  plan,  and  also  the  quadrant  representing  the  plan 
central  line  of  a  wreath.  The  curved  line  extending  from  a  to  h  in 
this  figure  represents  the  development  of  the  central  line  of  the  plan 
wreath,  and,  as  shown,  it  rests  on  an  oblique  plane  inclining  to  one 
side  only — namely,  to  the  side  of 
the  plan  tangent  a.  The  joints 
are  made  square  to  the  devel- 
oped tangents  a  and  m  of  the  in- 
clined plane;  it  is  for  this 
purpose  only  that  tangents  are 
made  use  of  in  wreath  construc- 
tion. They  are  shown  in  the 
figure  to  consist  of  two  lines, 
a  and  m,  which  are  two  adjoining 
sides  of  a  developed  section  (in  ^ig.  ge.  semicircular  pian. 


Fig.  85.    Acute- Angle  Plan. 


Joint 


309 


46 


STAIR-BUILDING 


Joint 


Illustrating  Plane 
Inclined    in  One  Direction 
Only. 


this  case,  of  a  square  prism),  the  section  being  the  assumed  incHned 

plane  whereon  the  wreath  rests  in  its  ascent  from  a  to  h.    The  joint  at  h, 

if  made  square  to  the  tangent  m,  will  be  a  true,  square  butt-joint;  so 

also  will  be  the  joint  at  a,  if  made  square  to 

the  tangent  a. 

In  practical  work  it  will  be  required  to  find 
the  correct  goemetrical  angle  between  the  two 
developed  tangents  a  and  m;  and  here,  again, 
it  may  be  observed  that  the  finding  of  the 
correct  angle  between  the  two  developed 
tangents  is  the  essential  purpose  of  every 
tangent  system  of  handrailing. 

In  Fig.  89  is  shown  the  geometrical  solu- 
tion— the  one  necessary  to  find  the  angle 
between  the  tangents  as  required  on  the  face- 
mould  to  square  the  joints  of  the  wreath. 
The  figure  is  shown  to  be  similar  to  Fig.  87, 
except  that  it  has  an  additional  portion 
marked  "Section."  This  section  is  the  true  shape  of  the  oblique  plane 
whereon  the  wreath  ascends,  a  view  of  which  is  given  in  Fig.  88.  It 
will  be  observed  that  one  side  of  it  is  the  developed  tangent  m;  another 
side,  the  developed  tangent  a"  (=  a). 
The  angle  between  the  two  as  here 
presented  is  the  one  required  on  the  face- 
mould  to  square  the  joints. 

In  this  example.  Fig.  89,  owing  to 
the  plane  being  oblique  in  one  direction 
only,  the  shape  of  the  section  is  found  by 
merely  drawing  the  tangent  a"  at  right 
angles  to  the  tangent  m,  making  it  equal 
in  length  to  the  level  tangent  a  in  the 
plan.  By  drawing  lines  parallel  to  a"  Tanqent  a 
and  m  respectively,  the  form  of  the  section   pig.  88.  pian  Line  of  Rail  Pro- 

.„    ,        „  1     •,  ,!•  1     •  .1  j  acted  into  Oblique  Plane  Inclined 

Will  be  lound,  its  outlines  being  tne  por-  to  one  side  oniy. 

jections  of  the  plan  lines;  and  the  angle 

between  the  two  tangents,  as  already  said,  is  the  angle  required  on 
the  face-mould  to  square  the  joints  of  the  wreath. 

The  solution  here  presented  will  enable  the  student  to  find  the 


310 


STAIR-BUILDING 


47 


Joint 


correct  direction  of  the  tangents  as  required  on  the  face-mould  to 
square  joints,  in  all  cases  of  practical  work  where  one  tangent  of  a 
wreath  is  level  and  the  other  tangent  is  inclined,  a  condition  usually 
met  with  in  level-landing  stairways. 

Fig.  90  exhibits  a  condition  of  tangents  where  the  two  are  equally 
inclined.  The  plan  here  also  is  taken  from  Fig.  86.  The  inclination 
of  the  tangents  is  made  equal 
to  the  inclination  of  tangent  b 
in  Fig.  86,  as  shown  at  m  in 
Figs.  87,  88,  and  89. 

In  Fig.  91,  a  view  of  Fig.  90 
is  given,  showing  clearly  the 
inclination  of  the  tangents  c" 
and  d"  over  and  above  the  plan 
tangents  c  and  d.  The  central 
line  of  the  wreath  is  shown 
extending  along  the  sectional 
plane,  o^er  and  above  its  plan 
lines,  from  one  joint  to  the 
other,  and,  at  the  joints,  made 
square  to  the  inclined  tangents 
c"  and  d".  It  is  evident  from 
the  view  here  given,  that  the 

condition  necessary  to  square  the  joint  at  each  end  would  'oe  to  find 
the  true  angle  between  the  tangents  c"  and  d'^,  wtiich  woiiia  give  the 
correct  direction  to  each  tangent. 

In  Fig.  92  is  shown  how  to  find  this  angle  correctly  as  required 
on  the  face-mould  to  square  the  joints.  In  this  figure  is  shown  the 
same  plan  as  in  Figs.  90  and  91,  and  the  same  inclination  to  the 
tangents  as  in  Fig.  90,  so  that,  except  for  the  portion  marked  "Section," 
it  would  be  similar  to  Fig.  90. 

To  find  the  correct  angle  for  the  tangents  of  the  face-mould, 
draw  the  line  m  from  d,  square  to  the  inclined  line  of  the  tangents 
c'  d";  revolve  the  bottom  inclined  tangent  c'  to  cut  line  m  in  n,  where 
the  joint  is  shown  fixed ;  and  from  this  point  draw  the  line  c"  to  w.  The 
intersection  of  this  line  with  the  upper  tangent  d"  forms  the  correct 
angle  as  required  on  the  face-mould.  By  drawing  the  joints  square 
to  these  two  lines,  they  will  butt  square  with  the  rail  that  is  to  connect 


Fig. 


Joint 
Finding  Angle  between  Tangents. 


311 


48 


STAIR-BUILDING 


Joint 


Fig.  90.    Two  Tangents  Equally 
Inclined. 


Fig.  91.      Plan   Lines   Projected 

into    Oblique  Plane  Inclined   to 

Two  Sides. 


with  them,  or  to  the  joint  of  another  wreath  that  may  belong  to  the 

cyHnder  or  well-hole. 

Fig.  93  is  another  view  of 
these  tangents  in  position 
placed  over  and  above  the 
plan  tangents  of  the  well- 
hole.  It  will  be  observed 
that  this  figure  is  made  up 
of  Figs.  88  and  91  com- 
bined. Fig.  88,  as  here 
presented,  is  shown  to  con- 
nect with  a  level  -  landing 
rail  at  a.  The  joint  having 
been  made  square  to  the 
level  tangent,  a  will  butt 
square  to  a  square  end  of 
the  level  rail.  The  joint  at 
h  is  shown  to  connect  the 
two  wreaths  and  is  made 

Fig.  03.    Finding  Angle  between  Tangents.  Square  to  the   inclinea    tan- 


312 


STAIR-BUILDING 


49 


gent  m  of  the  lower  wreath,  and  also  square  to  the  inclined  tangent  c" 
of  the  upper  wreath;  the  two  tangents,  aligning,  guarantee  a  square 
butt-joint.  The  upper  joint  is  made  square  to  the  tangent  d",  which 
is  here  shown  to  align  with  the  rail  of  the  connecting  flight;  the  joint 
will  consequently  butt  square  to  the  end  of  the  rail  of  the  flight  above. 
The  view  given  in  this  diagram  is  that  of  a  wreath  starting  from 
a  level  landing,  and  winding  around  a  well-hole,  connecting  the 
landing  with  a  flight  of  stairs  leading  to  a  second  story.  It  is  presented 
to  elucidate  the  use  made  of  tangents  to  square  the  joints  in  wreath 

construction.  The  wreath  is  shown  to 
be  in  two  sections,  one  extending  from 
the  level-landing  rail  at  a  to  a  joint  in 
the  center  of  the  well-hole  at  h,  this 
section  having  one  level  tangent  a  and 
one  inclined  tangent  m;  the  other  sec- 
tion is  shown  to  extend  from  h  to  n, 
where  it  is  butt-jointed  to  the  rail  of  the 
flight  above. 

This  figure  clearly  shows  that  the 
joint  at  a  of  the  bottom  wreath — owing 
to  the  tangent  a  being  level  and  there- 
fore aligning  with  the  level  rail  of  the 
landing — ^will  be  a  true  butt-joint;  and 
that  the  joint  at  h,  which  connects  the 
two  wreaths,  will  also  be  a  true  butt- 

N\    I  /       ;        joint,  owing  to  it  being  made  square  to 

\  !  /        i  the  tangent  m  of 

the  bottom 
wreath  and  to  the 
tangent  c"  of  the 
upper  wreath, 
both  tangents 
having  the  same 
inclination;  also 
the  joint  at  n  will 
butt    square    to 

Pig.  93.    Laying  Out  Line  of  Wreath  to  Start  from  Level-Land-    ^ne     rail    Ol     tlie 
ing  Rail,  Wind  around  Well-Hole,  and  Connect  at  Landing  with    fl-    v.+       o  K  r>  17  a 
Flight  to  Upper  Story.  nignt      a  D  O  V  e  , 


313 


50 


STAIR-BUILDING 


owing  to  it  being  made  square  to  the  tangent  d",  which  is  shown  to 
have  the  same  indination  as  the  rail  of  the  flight  adjoining. 

As  previously  stated,  the  use  made  of  tangents  is  to  square  the 
joints  of  the  wreaths;  and  in  this  diagram  it  is  clearly  shown  that  the 
way  they  can  be  made  of  use  is  by  giving  each  tangent  its  true  direc- 
tion.  How  to  find  the  true  direction,  or  the  angle  between  the  tangents 


|_anding- 


Fig.  94.    Tangents  Unfolded  to  Find  Their  Inclination. 

a  and  m  shown  in  this  diagram,  was  demonstrated  in  Fig.  89;  and  how 
to  find  the  direction  of  the  tangents  c"  and  d"  was  shown  in  Fig.  92. 

Fig.  94  is  presented  to  help  further  toward  an  understanding 
of  the  tangents.  In  this  diagram  they  are  unfolded;  that  is,  they 
are  stretched  out  for  the  purpose  of  finding  the  inclination  of  each 
one  over  and  above  the  plan  tangents.  The  side  plan  tangent  a 
is  shown  stretched  out  to  the  floor  line,  and  its  elevation  a'  is  a  level 
line.  The  side  plan  tangent  d  is  also  stretched  out  to  the  floor  line, 
as  shown  by  the  arc  n'  m! .  By  this  process  the  plan  tangents  are  now 
in  one  straight  line  on  the  floor  line,  as  shown  from  w  to  m! .  Upon 
each  one,  erect  a  perpendicular  line  as  shown,  and  from  m'  measure 
to  n,  the  height  the  wreath  is  to  ascend  around  the  well-hole.     In 


314 


^H^ 


/V 


6  r 


-S-i-^^ 


=D= 


r//?jT    n-oo/T   r'/./f/y 


FIRST-FLOOR  PLAN  OF  RESIDENCE  FOR  MR.  HANS   HOFFMAN,  MILWAUKEE,  WIS. 

COST  OF  HOUSE: 


Mason  Work %    625 .  00 

Carpentry 2,684.00 

Tinning 36.00 

Plumbing 380.00 

Plastering. 253.00 


Heating  (Furnace) %    167.00 

Painting 325.00 

Decorating 52.00 


Total $4,522. 00 

Built  in  1902.    Oak  Wainscoting    and  Ceiling  in  Dining   Room;  Oak  Finish  in  Stair  Hall  and  All  Main 
Rooms  on  First  Floor ;  Cypress  in  Balance  of  House.    For  Exterior,  See  Page  331. 


sf'co/iif     ri.oo/r   n/i/y. 


SECOND-FLOOR  PLAN   OF   RESIDENCE   FOR   MR.    HANS   HOFFMAN,   MILWAUKEE,  WIS. 

First-Floor  Plan  Shown  on  Opposite  Page. 


STAIR-BUILDING 


51 


practice,  the  number  of  risers  in  the  well-hole  will  determine  this 
height. 

Now,  from  pomt  n,  draw  a  few  treads  and  risers  as  shown;  and 
along  the  nosing  of  the  steps,  draw  the  pitch-line;  continue  this  line 
over  the  tangents  d",  c" ,  and  w,  down  to  where  it  connects  with  the 
botom  level  tangent,  as  shown.  This  gives  the  pitch  or  inclination 
to  the  tangents 
over  and  above 
the  well-hole. 
The  same  line  is 
shown  in  Fig.  93, 
folded  around 
the  well-hole, 
from  n,  where  it 
connects  with  the 
flight  at  the  up- 
per end  of  the 
well-hole,  to  a, 
where  it  connects 
with  the  level- 
landing  rail  at 
the  bottom  of 
the  well-hole.  It 
will  be  observed 
that  the  upper 
portion,  from 
joint  n  to  joint  In, 
over  the  tangents 

c"  and  d" ,  coincides  with  the  pitch-line  of  the  same  tangents  as 
presented  in  Fig.  92,  where  they  are  used  to  find  the  true  angle  between 
the  tangents  as  it  is  required  on  the  face-mould  to  square  the  ioints 
of  the  wreath  at  h. 

In  Fig.  89  the  same  pitch  is  shown  given  to  tangent  m  as  in  Fig. 
94;  and  in  both  figures  the  pitch  is  shown  to  be  the  same  as  that  over 
and  above  the  upper  connecting  tangents  c"  and  d" ,  which  is  a  neces- 
sary condition  where  a  joint,  as  shown  at  h,  in  Figs.  93  and  94,  is  to 
•connect  two  pieces  of  wreath  as  in  this  example. 

In  Fig.  94  are  shown  the  two  face-moulds  for  the  wreaths,  placed 


Fig.  95.    Well-Hole  Connecting  Two  Flights,  with  Two  Wreath- 
Pieces,  Each  Couc/uiiiiug  Portions  of  Unequal  Pitch. 


315 


52  STAIR-BUILDING 

upon  the  pitch-line  of  the  tangents  over  the  well-hole.  The  angles 
between  the  tangents  of  the  face-moulds  have  been  found  in  this 
figure  by  the  same  method  as  in  Figs.  89  and  92,  which,  if  compared 
with  the  present  figure,  will  be  found  to  correspond,  excepting  only 
the  curves  of  the  face-moulds  in  Fig.  94. 

The  foregoing  explanation  of  the  tangents  will  give  the  student 
a  fairly  good  idea  of  the  use  made  of  tangents  in  wreath  construction. 
The  treatment,  however,  would  not  be  complete  if  left  off  at  this 
point,  as  it  shows  how  to  handle  tangents  under  only  two  conditions — 
namely,  first,  when  one  tangent  inclines  and  the  other  is  level,  as  at 
a  and  m;  second,  when  both  tangents  incline,  as  shown  at  c"  and  d". 

In  Fig.  95  is  shown  a  well-hole  connecting  two  flights,  where  two 


■  Joint 


Joint 


h  ; !  \ 1 5 

h  6    4  Tanaent     I 


Tarngent  Tangent    I  ^  6    A  Tangent 

Ig.  96.      Finding  Angle    be-  Fig.  97.      Finding  Angle 

reen  Tangents   for   Bottom  tween   Tangents    for   U 
Wreath  of  Fig.  95.  Wreath  of  Fig.  95. 


portions  of  unequal  pitch  occur  in  both  pieces  of  wreath.  The  first 
piece  over  the  tangents  a  and  h  is  shown  to  extend  from  the  square 
end  of  the  straight  rail  of  the  bottom  flight,  to  the  joint  in  the  center 
of  the  well-hole,  the  bottom  tangent  a"  in  this  wreath  inclining  more 
than  the  upper  tangent  h".  The  other  piece  of  wreath  is  shown  to 
connect  with  the  bottom  one  at  the  joint  Ti"  in  the  center  of  the  well- 
hole,  and  to  extend  over  tangents  c"  and  d"  to  connect  with  the  rail  of 
the  upper  flight.  The  relative  inclination  of  the  two  tangents  in  this 
wreath,  is  the  reverse  of  that  of  the  two  tangents  of  the  lower  wreath. 
In  the  lower  piece,  the  bottom  tangent  a",  as  previously  stated, 
inclines  considerably  more  than  does  the  upper  tangent  h";  while 
in  the  upper  piece,  the  bottom  tangent  c"  inclines  considerably  less 
than  the  upper  tangent  d". 

The  question  may  arise:  What  caases  this?  Is  it  for  variation 
in  the  inclination  of  the  tangents  over  the  well-hole?  It  is  simply 
owing  to  the  tangents  being  used  in  handrailing  to  square  the  joints. 

The  inclination  of  the  bottom  tangent  a"  of  the  bottom  wreath 


316 


STAIR-BUILDING 


53 


Joint 
2, 


is  clearly  shown  in  the  diagram  to  be  determined  by  the  inclination 
of  the  bottom  flight.  The  joint  at  a"  is  made  square  to  both  the  straight 
rail  of  the  flight  and  to  the  bottom  tangent  of  the  wreath ;  the  rail  and 
tangent,  therefore,  must  be  equally  inclined,  otherwise  the  joint  will 
not  be  a  true  butt-joint.  The  same  remarks  apply  to  the  joint  at  5, 
where  the  upper  wreath  is  shown  jointed  to  the  straight  rail  of  the 
upper  flight.  In  this  case,  tangent  d"  must  be  fixed  to  incline  conform- 
ably to  the  in- 
clination of  the 
upper  rail ;  other- 
wise the  joint  at 
5  will  not  be  a 
true  butt-joint. 

The  same 
principle  is  ap- 
plied in  deter- 
mining the  pitch 
or  inclination 
over  the  crown 
tangents  h"  and 
c".  Owing  to  the 
necessity  of  joint- 
ing the  two 
wreaths,  as 
shown  at  h,  these 
two  tangents 
must    have    the 

same  inclination,  and  therefore  must  be  fixed,  as  shown  from  2 
to  4,  over  the  crown  of  the  well-hole. 

The  tangents  as  here  presented  are  those  of  the  elevation,  not 
of  the  face-mould.  Tangent  a"  is  the  elevation  of  the  side  plan  tan- 
gent a;  tangents  h"  and  c"  are  shown  to  be  the  elevations  of  the  plan 
tangents  h  and  c;  so,  also,  is  the  tangent  d"  the  elevation  of  the  side 
plan  tangent  d. 

If  this  diagram  were  folded,  as  Fig.  94  was  shown  to  be  in  Fig. 
93,  the  tangents  of  the  elevation — namely,  a",  h",  c",  d" — would  stand 
over  and  above  the  plan  tangents  a,  6,  c,  d  of  the  well-hole.  In  prac- 
tical work,  this  diagram  must  be  drawn  full  size.  It  gives  the  correct 


/ 

^ 

\ 

Joint 

/     V  ^'IN 

d" 

5 

/           > 

Tangent 

/  Va.ce^S4 

Landing 
Rail 

°\mouw;^ 

JoinyS 

z/ 

y\j/ 

y 

y/y  y 

>^&/ / 

Face  Mould>^4;ft'/ 

Joir,ll. "^^  ^^ 

m  irJ^nas^^,^ 

^ 

'    ^^       -^^ 

*        **     jS^^ 

\           v^^' 

\   ^.'^>\^ 

Joint  vV/'     '^V 

w      b 

c 

^/ 

S 

y^ 

""\ 

1 

b<S^ 

\ 

/                     \ 

! 

i^W 

\           3. 

/                        \ 

d 

t 

'^ 

*x^ 

' 

^•' 

Fig.  98. 


Diagram  of  Tangents  and  Face-Mould  for  Sta'r  with 
Well-Hole  at  Upper  Landing. 


317 


54 


STAIR-BUILDING 


Joint 


Fig.  99.  Draw- 
ing Mould  when 
One  Tangent  is 
Level  and  One 
Inclined  over 
Right- Angled 
Plan. 


length  to  each  tangent  as  required  on  the  face-mould,  and  furnishes 
also  the  data  for  the  lay-out  of  the  mould. 

Fig.  96  shows  how  to  find  the  angle  between  the  tangents  of  the 
face-mould  for  the  bottom  wreath,  which,  as  shown  in  Fig.  95,  is  to 
span  over  the  first  plan  quadrant  a  h.  The  elevation 
Joirii  tangents  a"  and  h",  as  shown,  will  be  the  tangents  of  the 
mould.  To  find  the  angle  between  the  tangents,  draw 
the  line  ah  in  Fig.  96 ;  and  from  a,  measure  to  2  the 
length  of  the  bottom  tangent  a"  in  Fig.  95;  the 
length  from  2  to  li,  Fig  96,  will  equal  the  length  of 
the  upper  tangent  h",  Fig.  95. 

From  2  to  1,  measure  a  distance  equal  to  2-1  in  Fig. 
95,  the  latter  being  found  by  dropping  a  perpendicular 
from  w  to  meet  the  tangent  h"  extended.  Upon  1,  erect 
a  perpendicular  line;  and  placing  the  dividers  on  2, 
extend  to  a;  turn  over  to  the  perpendicular  at  a";  con- 
nect this  point  with  2,  and  the  line  will  be  the  bottom  tangent  as 
required  on  the  face-mould.  The  upper  tangent  will  be  the  line  2-h, 
and  the  angle  between  the  two  lines  is  shown  at  2.  Make  the  joint 
at  h  square  to  2-h,  and  at  a"  square  to  a"-2. 

The  mould  as  it  appears  in  Fig.  96  is  complete,  except  the  curve, 
which  is  comparatively  a 
small  matter  to  put  on,  as 
will  be  shown  further  on. 
The  main  thing  is  to  find 
the  angle  between  the  tan- 
gents, which  is  shown  at  2, 
to  give  them  the  direction  to 
square  the  joints. 

In  Fig.  97  is  shown  how 
to  find  the  angle  between 
the  tangents  c"  and  d" 
shown  in  Fig.  95,  as  required 
on  the  face-mould.    On  the 

line  h-b,  make  h~4:  equal  to  the  length  of  the  bottom  tangent  of  the 
wreath,  as  shown  at  /i"-4  in  Fig.  95;  and  4-5  equal  to  the  length  of 
the  upper  tangent  d".  Measure  from  4  the  distance  shown  at  4-6 
in  Fig  95,  and  place  it  from  4  to  6  as  shown  in  Fig.  97;  upon  6  erect  a 


Fig.  100.    Plan  of  Curved  Steps  and  Stringer  at 
Bottom  of  Stair. 


318 


STAIR-BUILDING 


55 


.Joint 


Level  Tangent 


Floor  Line'' 


perpendicular  line.  Now  place  the  dividers  on  4;  extend  to  h;  turn 
over  to  cut  the  perpendicular  in  h";  connect  this  point  with  4,  and  the 
angle  shown  at  4  will  be  the  angle  required  to  square  the  joints  of  the 
wreath  as  shown  at  h"  and  5,  where  the  joint  at  5  is  shown  drawn 
square  to  the  line  4-5,  and  the  joint  at  h"  square  to  the  line  4  h". 

Fig.  98  is  a  diagram  of  tangents  and  face-mould  for  a  stairway 
having  a  well-hole 
at  the  top  landing. 
The  tangents  in  this 
example  will  be  two 
equallyinclined  tan- 
gents for  the  bot- 
tom wreath ;  and  for 
the  top  wreath,  one 
inclined  and  one  lev- 
el, the  latter  align- 
ing with  the  level 
rail  of  the  landing. 
The  face-mould, 
as  here  presented, 
will  further  help 
toward  an  under- 
standing of  the  lay- 
out of  face-moulds 
as  shown  in  Figs.  96 

and  97.  It  will  be  observed  that  the  pitch  of  the  bottom  rail  is  con- 
tinued from  a"  to  h",  a  condition  caused  by  the  necessity  of  jointing  the 
wreath  to  the  end  of  the  straight  rail  at  a",  the  joint  being  made  square 
to  both  the  straight  rail  and  the  bottom  tangent  a".  From  h"  a  line  is 
drawn  to  d",  which  is  a  fixed  point  determined  by  the  number  of  risers 
in  the  well-hole.  From  point  d",  the  level  tangent  d"  5  is  drawn  in  line 
with  the  level  rail  of  the  landing;  thus  the  pitch-line  of  the  tangents 
over  the  well-hole  is  found,  and,  as  was  shown  in  the  explanation  of 
Fig.  95,  the  tangents  as  here  presented  will  be  those  required  on  the 
face-mould  to  square  the  joints  of  the  wreath. 

In  Fig.  98  the  tangents  of  the  face-mould  for  the  bottom  wreath 
are  shown  to  be  a"  and  h".  To  place  tangent  a"  in  position  on  the 
face-mould,  it  is  revolved,  as  shown  by  the  arc,  to  m,  cutting  a  line 


Fig.  101. 


Newel 


Finding  Angle  between  Tangents  for  Squaring 
Joints  of  Ramped  Wreath. 


319 


56 


STAIR-BUILDING 


Newel 


Fig.  102.    Bottom  Steps  with  Obtuse- 
Angle  Plan. 


previously  drawn  from  w  square  to  the  tangent  6''  extended.  Then, 
by  connecting  m  to  b",  the  bottom  tangent  is  placed  in  position  on  the 
face-mould.  The  joint  at  m  is  to  be  made  square  to  it;  and  the  joint 
at  c,  the  other  end  of  the  mould,  is  to  be  made  square  to  the  tangent  b". 

The  upper  piece  of  wreath  in  this 
example  is  shown  to  have  tangent  c" 
inclining,  the  inclination  being  the  same 
as  that  of  the  upper  tangent  6"  of  the 
bottom  wreath,  so  that  the  joint  at  c", 
when  made  square  to  both  tangents, 
will  butt  square  when  put  together. 
The  tangent  d"  is  shown  to  be  level,  so 
that  the  joint  at  5,  when  squared  with 
it,  will  butt  square^with  the  square  end 
of  the  level-landing  rail.  The  level  tangent  is  shown  revolved  to  its 
position  on  the  face-mould,  as  from  5  to  2.  In  this  last  position,  it 
will  be  observed  that  its  angle  with  the  inclined  tangent  c"  is  a  right 
angle;  and  it  should  be  remembered  that  in  every  similar  case  where 
one  tangent  inclines  and  one  is  level 
over  a  square-angle  plan  tangent,  the 
angle  between  the  two  tangents  will 
be  a  right  angle  on  the  face-mould. 
A  knowledge  of  this  principle  will  en- 
able the  student  to  draw  the  mould 
for  this  wreath,  as  shown  in  Fig.  99, 
by  merely  drawing  two  lines  perpen- 
dicular to  each  other,  as  rf"  5  and  d"  c" , 
equal  respectively  to  the  level  tangent 
d!'  5  and  the  inclined  tangent  c"  in  Fig. 
98.  The  joint  at  5  is  to  be  made 
square  to  d!'  5;  and  that  at  c" ,  to  d"  c". 
Comparing  this  figure  with  the  face- 
mould  as  shown  for  the  upper  wreath  in  Fig.  98,  it  will  be  observed 
that  both  are  alike. 

In  practical  work  the  stair-builder  is  often  called  upon  to  deal 
with  cases  in  which  the  conditions  of  tangents  differ  from  all  the 
examples  thus  far  given.  An  instance  of  this  sort  is  shown  in  Fig.  100, 
in  which  the  angles  between  the  tangents  on  the  plan  are  acute. 


Face  MovJd->c   / 

a/Vl  Rtch- 

V^       board 
—  Riser 

-^i<^ 

n 

—  Riser 

'v,'\w 

b 

rioor  Une 

\y 

Plan 

Newel  > 

Fig.  103.    Developing  Face -Mould, 
Obtuse- Angle  Plan. 


320 


STAIR-BUILDING 


57 


Fig.  105.    Wreath  Twisted,  Ready  to  be  Moulded. 


In  all  the  preceding  examples,  the  tan- 
gents on  the  plan  were  at  right  angles; 
that  is,  they  were  square  to  one  another. 
Fig.  100  is  a  plan  of  a  few  curved 
steps  placed  at  the  bottom  of  a  stairway 
with  a  curved  stringer, which  is  struck  from 
a  center  o.  The  plan  tangents  a  and  b 
Fig.  104.  cutung^wreath  from  are  sliown  to  form  an  acute  angle  with  each 

other.  The  rail  above  a  plan  of  this 
design  is  usually  ramped  at  the  bottom  end,  where  it  intersects  the 
newel  post,  and,  when  so  treated,  the  bottom  tangent  a  will  have 
to  be  level. 

In  Fig.  101  is  shown 
how  to  find  the  angle  be- 
tween the  tangents  on  the 
face-mould  that  gives  them 
the  correct  direction  for 
squaring  the  joints   of  the 

wreath  when  it  is  determined  to  have  it  ramped.  This  figure  must 
be  drawn  full  size.  Usually  an  ordinary  drawing-board  will  answer 
the  purpose.  Upon  the  board,  reproduce  the  plan  of  the  tangents  and 
curve  of  the  center  line  of  rail  as  shown  in  Fig.  100.  Measure  the  height 

of  5  risers,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  101,  from  the  floor  line 
to  5 ;  and  draw  the  pitch  of 
the  flight  adjoining  the 
wreath,  from  5  to  the  floor 
line.  From  the  newel, 
draw  the  dotted  line  to  w, 
square  to  the  floor  line; 
from  w,  draw  the  line  w  m, 
square  to  the  pitch-line  h". 
Now  take  the  length  of  the 
bottom  level  tangent  on  a 
trammel,  or  on  dividers  if 
large  enough,  and  extend 
it  from  n  to  m,  cutting  the 
Fig.  106.   Twisted  wr^ea^th  Raised  to  Position,  with  ^ne  drawn  previously  from 


821 


58 


STAIR-BUILDING 


w,  at  TO.  Connect  to  to  w  as  shown  by  the  Hne  a".  The  intersection 
of  this  Hne  with  b"  determines  the  angle  between  the  two  tangents  a" 
and  b"  of  the  face-mould,  which  gives  them  the  correct  direction  as 
required  on  the  face-mould  for  squaring  the  joints.  The  joint  at  to  is 
made  square  to  tangent  a";  and  the  joint  at  5,  to  tangent  b". 

In  Fig.  102  is  presented  an  example  of  a  few  steps  at  the  bottom 
of  a  stairway  in  which  the  tangents  of  the  plan  form  an  obtuse  angle 
with  each  other.  The  curve  of  the 
central  line  of  the  rail  in  this  case 
will  be  less  than  a  quadrant,  and, 
as  shown,  is  struck  from  the  center 
o,  the  curve  covering  the  three  first 
steps  from  the  newel  to  the  springing. 

In  Fig.  103  is  shown  how  to 
develop  the  tangents  of  the  face- 
mould.    Reproduce  the  tangents  and 


Fig.  107.   Finding  Bevfil ,  Bot- 
tom  Tangent  Inclined,  Top 
One  Level. 


Fig.  108. 


Application  of  Bevels  in   Fitting  Wreath  to 
Rail. 


curve  of  the  plan  in  full  size.  Fix  point  3  at  a  height  equal  to  3 
risers  from  the  floor  line;  at  this  point  place  the  pitch-board  of  the 
flight  to  determine  the  pitch  over  the  curve  as  shown  from  3  through 
b"  to  the  floor  line.  From  the  newel,  draw  a  line  to  w,  square  to 
the  floor  line ;  and  from  w,  square  to  the  pitch-line  b",  draw  the  line 
w  to;  connect  to  to  n.  This  last  line  is  the  development  of  the  bottom 
plan  tangent  a;  and  the  line  b"  is  the  development  of  the  plan  tangent 


322 


STAIR-BUILDING 


59 


Fig.  109. 


b;  and  the  angle  between  the  two  lines  a"  and  b"  will  give  each  line 
its  true  direction  as  required  on  the  face-mould  for  squaring  the  joints 

of  the  wreath, 
a  ^=y  ^^    shown    at 

m  to  connect 
square  with 
the  newel,  and 
at  3  to  con- 
nect square  to 
the  rail  of  the 
connectin  g 
flight. 

The  wreath 
in  this  e X- 
ample  follows 

Face-Mould  and  Bevel  for  Wreath,  Bottom  Tangent  Level, +i,^  „^^*^1'^ 
Top  One  Inclined.  tlie  noSlUg  line 

of  the  steps 
without  being  ramped  as  it  was  in  the  examples  shown  in  Figs.  100 
and  101.  In  those  figures  the  bottom  tangent  a  was  level,  while  in 
Fig.  103  it  inclines  equal  to  the  pitch  of  the  upper  tangent  b'^  and  of  the 
flight  adjoining.  In 
other  words,  the 
method  shown  in 
Fig.  101  is  applied 
to  a  construction  in 
which  the  wreath  is 
ramped ;  while  in 
Fig.  103  the  method 
is  applicable  to  a  ground 
wreath  following 
the  nosing  line  all 
along  the  curve  to 
the  newel. 

The  stair-build- 
er  is    supposed  to 
know  how  to   con- 
struct a  wreath  under  both  conditions,  as  the  conditions  are  usually 
determined  by  the  Architect. 


Fig.  110.    Finding  Bevels  for  Wreath  with  Two  Equally 
Inclined  Tangents. 


323 


60 


STAIR-BUILDING 


The  foregoing  examples  cover  all  conditions  of  tangents  that 
are  likely  to  turn  upinpractice,  and,  if  clearly  understood,  will  enable 
the  student  to  lay  out  the 
face-moulds  for  all  kinds 
of  curves. 

Bevels  to  Square  the 
Wreaths.  The  next 
process  in  the  construc- 
tion of  a  wreath  that  the 
handrailer  will  be  called 
upon  to  perform,  is  to  find 
the  bevels  that  will,  by 
being  applied  to  each  end 
of  it,  give  the  correct  angle 
to  square  or  twist  it  when 
winding  around  the  well- 
hole  from  one  flight  to 
another  flight,  or  from 
a  flight  to  a  landing,  as 
the  case  may  be. 

The  wreath  is  first 
cut  from  the  plank  square  to  its  surface  as  shown    in  Fig.   104. 
After    the    application    of    the    bevels,   it    is     twisted,    as  shown 

in  Fig.  105,  ready 
to  be  moulded; 
and  when  i  n 
position,  ascending 
from  one  end  of  the 
curve  to  the  other 
end,  over  the  in- 
clined plane  of  the 
section  around  the 
well-hole,  its  sides 
will  be  plumb,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  106 
at  h.  In  this  fig- 
ure, as  also  in  Fig.  105,  the  wreath  a  lies  in  a  horizontal  position 
in  which  its  sides  appear  to  be  out  of  plumb  as  much  as  the  bevels 


Fig.  111.    Application  of  Bevels  to  Wreatb  Ascending 
on  Plane  Inclined  Equally  in  Two  Directions. 


Fig.  112. 


Finding  Bevel  Where  Upper  Tangent  Inclines 
More  Than  Lower  One. 


334 


STAIR-BUILDING 


61 


Fig.  113. 


Finding  Bevel  Where  Upper  Tangent  Inclines  Less 
Than  Lower  One. 


are  out  of  plumb.     In  the   upper  part   of  the  figure,  the  wreath 

6  is  shown  placed  in  its   position   upon  the  plane  of  the  section, 

where     its    sides    are    seen    to    be    plumb.       It    is    evident,    as 

shown  in  the 

relative    posi- 

tionof  the 

wreath  in  this 

figure,  that,  if 

the  bevel  is  the 

correct    angle 

of  the  plane  of 

the  section 

whereon     the 

wreath  b  rests 

in    its    ascent 

over  the  well- 

hole,      the 

wreath  will  in 

that  case  have  its  sides  plumb  all  along  when  in  position.  It  is  for  this 

purpose  that  the  bevels  are  needed. 

A  method  of  finding  the  bevels  for  all  wreaths  (which  is  considered 
rather  difficult)  will  now  be  explained : 

First  Case.  In  Fig.  107  is  shown  a  case  where  the  bottom 
tangent  of  a  wreath  is  inclining,  and  the  top  one  level,  similar  to  the 
top  wreath  shown  in  Fig.  98.  It  has  already  been  noted  that  the  plane 
of  the  section  for  this  kind  of  wreath  inclines  to  one  side  only;  therefore 
one  bevel  only  will  be  required  to  square  it,  which  is  shown  at  d, 
Fig.  107.  A  view  of  this  plane  is  given  in  Fig.  108;  and  the  bevel  d, 
as  there  shown,  indicates  the  angle  of  the  inclination,  which  also  is 
the  bevel  required  to  square  the  end  d  of  the  wreath.  The  bevel  is 
shown  applied  to  the  end  of  the  landing  rail  in  exactly  the  same  manner 
in  which  it  is  to  be  applied  to  the  end  of  the  wreath.  The  true  bevel 
for  this  wreath  is  found  at  the  upper  angle  of  the  pitch-board.  At  the 
end  a,  as  already  stated,  no  bevel  is  required,  owing  to  the  plane 
inclining  in  one  direction  only.  Fig.  109  shows  a  face-mould  and 
bevel  for  a  wreath  with  the  bottom  tangent  level  and  the  top  tangent 
inclining,  such  as  the  piece  at  the  bottom  connecting  with  the  landing 
rail  in  Fig.  94, 


325 


62 


STAIR-BUILDING 


Second  Case.  It  may  be  required  to  find  the  bevels  for  a  wreath 
having  two  equally  inclined  tangents.  An  example  of  this  kind  also 
is  shown  in  Fig.  94,  where  both  the  tangents  c"  and  d"  of  the  upper 


Fig.  114.  Finding  Bevel 
Where  Tangents  In- 
cline Equally  over 
Obtuse-Angle  Plan. 


Fig.  115.    Same  Plan  as  in  Fig. 

114,  but  with  Bottom  Tangent 

Level. 


wreath  incline  equally.  Two  bevels  are  required  in  this  case,  because 
the  plane  of  the  section  is  inclined  in  two  directions ;  but,  owing  to  the 
incHnations  being  alike,  it  follows  that  the  two  will  be  the  same. 
They  are  to  be  appHed  to  both  ends  of  the  wreath,  and,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  105,  m  the  same  direction — namely, 
toward  the  inside  of  the  wreath  for  the  bot- 
tom end,  and  toward  the  outside  for  the  upper 
end. 

In  Fig.  110  the  method  of  finding  the  bevels 
is  shown.     A  line  is  drawn  from  w  to  c",  square 
to  the  pitch  of  the  tangents,  and  turned  over 
to  the  ground  line  at  h,  which  point  is  con- 
nected to  a  as  shown.     The  bevel  is  at  h. 
To   show   that   equal   tangents    have    equal 
bevels,  the  line  m  is  drawn,  having  the  same 
inclination  as  the  bottom  tangent  c" ,  but  in  another  direction.    Place 
the  dividers  on  o' ,  and  turn  to  touch  the  lines  d"  and  m,  as  shown  by 
the  semicircle.    The  line  from  o'  to  n  is  equal  to  the  side  plan  tangent 


a  c 

Fig.  116.    Finding  Bevels 
for  Wreath  of  Fig.  115. 


336 


STAIR-BUILDING 


63 


m    Level  Tangent 


GroundxLTine 


w  a,  and  both  the  bevels  here  shown  are  equal  to  the  one  alreadv 
found.  They  represent  the  angle  of  incHnation  of  the  plane  where- 
on the  wreath  ascends,  a  view  of  which  is  given  in  Fig.  Ill,  where 
the  plane  is  shown  to  incline  equally  in  two  directions.  At  both  ends 
is  shown  a  section  of  a  rail;  and  the  bevels  are  applied  to  show  how, 
by  means  of  them,  the  wreath  is  squared  or  twisted  when  winding 
around  the  well-hole  and  ascending  upon  the  plane  of  the  section. 
The  view  given  in 
this  figure  will  en- 
able the  student  to 
understand  the 
nature  of  the  bevels 
found  in  Fig.  110 
for  a  wreath  having 
two  equally  inclined 
tangents ;  also  for 
all  other  wreaths  of 
equally  inclined 
tangents,  in  that 
every  wreath  in 
such  case  is  assumed 
to  rest  upon  an  in- 
clined plane  in  its 
ascent  over  the  well- 
hole,  the  bevel  in 
every  case  being  the  angle  of  the  inclined  plane. 

Third  Case.  In  this  example,  two  unequal  tangents  are  given, 
the  upper  tangent  inclining  more  than  the  bottom  one.  The  method 
shown  in  Fig.  110  to  find  the  bevels  for  a  wreath  with  two  equal  tan- 
gents, is  applicable  to  all  conditions  of  variation  in  the  inclination  of 
the  tangents.  In  Fig.  112  is  shown  a  case  where  the  upper  tangent 
d"  inclines  more  than  the  bottom  one  c".  The  method  in  all  cases  is 
to  continue  the  line  of  the  upper  tangent  d" ,  Fig.  112,  to  the  ground 
line  as  shown  at  n;  from  n,  draw  a  line  to  a,  which  will  be  the  horizon- 
tal trace  of  the  plane.  Now,  from  o,  draw  a  line  parallel  to  a  n,  as 
shown  from  o  to  d,  upon  d,  erect  a  perpendicular  line  to  cut  the  tangent 
d",  as  shown,  at  m;  and  draw  the  line  m  u  o".  Make  u  o"  equal  to 
the  length  of  the  plan  tangent  as  shown  by  the  arc  from  o.  Put  one 


Fig.   117. 


Upper  Tangent  Inclined,  Lower  Tangent  Level, 
Over  Acute- Angle  Plan. 


337 


64  STAIR-BUILDING 

leg  of  the  dividers  on  u;  extend  to  touch  the  upper  +angent  d",  and 
turn  over  to  1 ;  connect  1  to  o";  the  bevel  at  1  is  to  be  applied  to  tangent 
d".  Again  place  the  dividers  on  u;  extend  to  the  line  h,  and  turn  over  to 
2  as  shown;  connect  2  to  o",  and  the  bevel  shown  at  2  will  be  the  one 

to  apply  to  the  bottom  tangent  c". 
It  will  be  observed  that  the  line  h 
represents  the  bottom  tangent.  It 
is  the  same  length  and  has  the  same 
inclination.  An  example  of  this 
kind  of  wreath  was  shown  in  Fig. 
95,  where  the  upper  tangent  d'^  is 
shown  to  incline  more  than  the  bot- 
tom tangent  c"  in  the  top  piece  ex- 
Fig.  118.    Finding  Bevels  for  Wreath        ,        i.        <•  7//.r       t)        iij?         j 

of  Plan,  Fig.  117.  tending  from  h"  to  5.    Bevel  1,  round 

in  Fig.  112,  is  the  real  bevel  for  the 
end  5 ;  and  bevel  2,  for  the  end  h"  of  the  wreath  shown  from  h"  to  5 
in  Fig.  95. 

Fourth  Case.  In  Fig.  113  is  shown  how  to  find  the  bevels  for  a 
wreath  when  the  upper  tangent  inclines  less  than  the  bottom  tangent. 
This  example  is  the  reverse  of  the  preceding  one;  it  is  the  condition 
of  tangents  found  in  the  bottom  piece  of  wreath  shown  in  Fig.  95. 
To  find  the  bevel,  continue  the  upper  tangent  6"  to  the  ground  line, 
as  shown  at  n;  connect  ?i  to  a,  which  will  be  the  horizontal  trace  of 
the  plane.  From  o,  draw  a  line  parallel  to  n  a,  as  shown  from  o  to  d; 
upon  d,  erect  a  perpendicular  line  to  cut  the  continued  portion  of  the 
upper  tangent  b"  in  m;  from  m,  draw  the  line  m  u  o"  across  as  shown. 
Now  place  the  dividers  on  u;  extend  to  touch  the  upper  tangent,  and 
turn  over  to  1 ,  connect  1  to  o" ;  the  bevel  at  1  will  be  the  one  to  apply 
to  the  tangent  h"  at  h,  where  the  two  wreaths  are  shown  connected  in 
Fig.  95.  Again  place  the  dividers  on  u;  extend  to  touch  the  line  c; 
turn  over  to  2 ;  connect  2  to  o" ;  the  bevel  at  2  is  to  be  applied  to  the 
bottom  tangent  a!'  at  the  joint  where  it  is  shown  to  connect  with  the 
rail  of  the  flight. 

Fvftk  Case.  In  this  case  we  have  two  equally  inclined  tangents 
over  an  obtuse-angle  plan.  In  Fig.  102  is  shown  a  plan  of  this  kind ; 
and  in  Fig.  103,  the  development  of  the  face-mould. 

In  Fig.  114  is  shown  how  to  find  the  bevel.  From  a,  draw  a  line 
to  a',  square  to  the  ground  line.    Place  the  dividers  on  a';  extend  to 


328 


STAIR-BUILDING 


65 


touch  the  pitch  of  tangents,  and  turn  over  as  shown  to  m;  connect  m 
to  a.  The  bevel  at  ni  will  be  the  only  one  required  for  this  wreath, 
but  it  will  have  to  be  applied  to  both  ends,  owing  to  the  two  tangents 
being  inclined. 

Sixth  Case.  In  this  case  we  have  one  tangent  inclining  and  one 
tangent  level,  over  an  acute-angle  plan. 

In  Fig.  115  is  shown  the  same  plan  as  in  Fig.  114;  but  in  this 


DirectiTig  Ordinate       ^  ^ 

Of  Section  ^^  \         ^\     »^ 


Directing  Ordinate 
Of  Base 


Fig.  119.    Laying  Out  Curves  on  Face-Mould  with  Pins  and  String. 

case  the  bottom  tangent  a"  is  to  be  a  level  tangent.  Probably  this 
condition  is  the  most  commonly  met  with  in  wreath  construction  at 
the  present  time.  A  small  curve  is  considered  to  add  to  the  appear- 
ance of  the  stair  and  rail;  and  consequently  it  has  become  almost  a 
"fad"  to  have  a  little  curve  or  stretch-out  at  the  bottom  of  the  stairway, 
and  in  most  cases  the  rail  is  ramped  to  intersect  the  newel  at  right 
angles  instead  of  at  the  pitch  of  the  flight.  In  such  a  case,  the  bottom 
tangent  a"  will  have  to  be  a  level  tangent,  as  shown  at  a"  in  Fig.  115, 
the  pitch  of  the  flight  being  over  the  plan  tangent  b  only. 


329 


66 


STAIR-BUILDING 


Fig.  120.    Simple  Method  of  Drawing  Curves 
on  Face-Mould. 


To  find  the  bevels  when  tangent  h"  indines  and  tangent  a"  is 
level,  make  a  c  in  Fig.  116  equal  to  a  c  in  Fig.  115.    This  line  will  be 

the  base  of  the  two  bevels. 
Upon  a,  erect  the  line  a  w  m 
at  right  angles  to  a  c;  make  a 
w  equal  to  b  ly  in  Fig.  115;  con- 
nect w  and  c;  the  bevel  at  w 
will  be  the  one  to  apply  to  tan- 
gent b"  at  n  where  the  wreath 
is  joined  to  the  rail  of  the  flight. 
Again,  make  a  m  in  Fig.  116 
equal  the  distance  shown  in  Fig. 
115  between  w  and  m,  which  is 
the  full  height  over  which  tan- 
gent b"  is  inclined ;  connect  m  to 
c  in  Fig.  116,  and  at  m  is  the  bevel  to  be  applied  to  the  level  tangent  a". 

Seventh  Case. 
In  this  case,  illus- 
trated in  Fig.  117, 
the  upper  tangent 
b"  is  shown  to  in- 
cline, and  the  bot- 
tom tangent  a"  to 
be  level,  over  an 
acute  -  angle  plan. 
The  plan  here  is 
the  same  as  that  in 
Fig.  100,  where  a 
curve  is  shown  to 
stretch  out  from  the 
line  of  the  straight 
stringer  at  the  bot- 
tom of  a  flight  to  a 
newel,  and  is  large 
enough  to  contain 
five  treads,  which 
are  gracefully  rounded  to  cut  the  curve  of  the  central  line  of  rail  in 
1,  2,  3,  4.    This  curve  also  may  be  used  to  connect  a  landing  rail  to  a 


Fig.  121.    Tangents,  Bevels,  Mould-Curves,  etc.,  from  Bottom 
Wreath  of  Fig.   9.5,  in  which  Upper  Tangent  Inclines  Less 
than  Lower  One. 


330 


STAIR-BUILDING 


67 


flight,  either  at  top  or  bottom,  when  the  plan  is  acute-angled,  as  will 
be  shown  further  on. 

To  find  the  bevels —  g'L  _N1^°7'_ 

for    there    will    be    two 

bevels  necessary  for  this 

wreath,    owing    to    one 

tangent  b"  being  inclined 

and  the  other  tangent  a" 

being  level — make    a  c, 

Fig.  118,  equal  to  a  c  in 

Fig.  117,  which  is  a  line 

drawn    square   to    the 

ground    line    from    the 

newel  and  shown  in  all 

preceding  figures  to  have 

been  used   for  the   base 

of  a  triangle  containing 

the  bevel.    Make  aw  in 

Fig.  118  equal  to  w  o  in 

Fig.  117,  which  is  a  fine  drawn  square  to  the  inclined  tangent  b"  from 

w;  connect  w  and  c  in  Fig.  118.    The  bevel  shown  at  w  will  be  the  one 

to  be  applied  to  the  joint  5  on  tangent  b'\  Fig.  117.  Again,  make  am 


Pig.   133. 


Developed  Section  of  Plane  Inclining  Un- 
equally in  Two  Directions. 


Pig   123.    Arranging  Risers    around  Well-Hole  on  Level-Landing  Stair, 
with  Radius  of  Central  Line  of  Rail  One-Half  Width  of  Tread. 

in  Fig.  118  equal  to  the  distance  shown  in  Fig.  117  between  the  line 
representing  the  level  tangent  and  the  line  m'  5,  which  is  the  height  that 


331 


68 


STAIR-BUILDING 


tangent  h"  is  shown  to  rise;  connect  m  to  c  in  Fig.  118;  the  bevel  shown 
at  TO  is  to  be  apphed  to  the  end  that  intersects  with  the  newel  as  shown 
at  TO  in  Fig.  117. 

The  wreath  is  shown  developed  in  Fig.  101  for  this  case;  so  that, 
with  Fig.  100  for  plan,  Fig.  101  for  the  development  of  the  wreath, 
and  Figs.  117  and  118  for  finding  the  bevels,  the  method  of  handling 
any  similar  case  in  practical  work  r^an  be  found. 

How  to  Put  the  Curves  on  the  Face- Mould.     It  has  been  shown 

how  to  find  the 
angle  between  the 
tangents  o  f  the 
face-mould,  and 
that  the  angle  is 
for  the  purpose  of 
squaring  the  joints 
at  the  ends  of  the 
wreath.  In  Fig. 
119  is  shown  how 
to  lay  out  the 
curves  by  means 
of  pins  and  a 
string  —  a  very 
common  practice 
among  stair-build- 
ers.  In  this 
example  the  face- 
Fig.  134.  Arrangement  of  Risers  Around  Well-Hole  with  Rad-  mOuld  haS  CQUal 
ius  Larger  Than  One-Half  Width  of  Tread.  ^ 

tangents  as  shown 
at  c"  and  d".  The  angle  between  the  two  tangents  is  shown  at  to  as  it 
will  be  required  on  the  face-mould.  In  this  figure  a  Hne  is  drawn 
from  TOparallel  tothe  line  drawn  from  ^,which  is  marked  in  the  diagram 
as  "Directing  Ordinate  of  Section."  The  line  drawn  from  to  will 
contain  the  minor  axes;  and  a  line  drawn  through  the  corner  of  the 
section  at  3  \^ill  contain  the  major  axes  of  the  ellipses  that  will  consti- 
tute the  curves  of  the  mould. 

The  major  is  to  be  drawn  square  to  the  minor,  as  shown.  Place, 
from  point  3,  the  circle  shown  on  the  minor,  at  the  same  distance  as 
the  circle  in  the  plan  is  fixed  from  the  point  o.    The  diameter 


332 


STAIR-BUILDING 


69 


of  this  circle  indicates  the  width  of  the  curve  at  this  point.    The  width 
at  each  end  is  determined  by  the  bevels.    The  distance  a  h,  as  shown 


Fig.  135.    Arrangement  of  Risers  around  Well-Hole,  with  Risers  Spaced 
Full  Width  of  Tread. 

upon  the  long  edge  of  the  bevel,  is  equal  to  |  the  width  of  the  mould,  and 
is  the  hypotenuse  of  a  right-angled  triangle  whose  base  is  ^  the  width  of 
the  rail.    By  placing  this  dimension  on  each  side  of  n,  as  shown  at  h 


RISOT- 

Rldon 

Risen- 

Fig.  126.     Plan  of  Stair 
Shown  in  Fig.  123, 


Fig.    127.      Plan    of    Stair 
Shown  in  Fig.  124. 


Fig.  128.      Plan  of  Stair 
Shown  in  Fig.  125. 


and  6,  and  on  each  side  of  h"  on  the  other  end  of  the  mould,  as  shown 
also  at  h  and  &,  we  obtain  the  points  6  2  6  on  the  inside  of  the  curve,  and 


333 


70 


STAIR-BUILDING 


the  points  6  1  &  on  the  outside.    It  will  now  be  necessary  to  find  the 
elliptical  curves  that  will  contain  these  points ;  and  before  this  can  be 

done,  the  exact  length  of  the  minor  and 
major  axes  respectively  must  be  deter- 
mined. The  length  of  the  minor  axis 
for  the  inside  curve  will  be  the  dis- 
tance shown  from  3  to  2;  and  its  length 
for  the  outside  will  be  the  distance 
shown  from  3  to  1. 
Pitch  '^^  ^^^  *^^  length  of  the  major  axis 

*^ Board  for  the  inside,  take  the  length  of  half  the 
minor  for  the  inside  on  the  dividers: 
place  one  leg  on  b,  extend  to  cut  the 
major  in  z,  continue  to  the  minor  as 
shown  at  k.  The  distance  from  b  to  k 
will  be  the  length  of  the  semi-major  axis  for  the  inside  curve. 

To  draw  the  curve,  the  points  or  foci  where  the  pins  are  to  be 
fixed  must  be  found  on  the  major  axis.  To  find  these  points,  take 
the  length  of  b  k  (which  is,  as  previously  found,  the  exact  length  of 


Fig.  129.     Drawing  Face-Mould 
for  Wreath  from  Pitch-Board. 


Landinq  Rail 


Fig.  130.    Development  of  Face-Mould  for  Wreath  Connecting  Rail 
of  Flight  with  Level-Landing  Rail. 


the  semi-major  for  the  inside  curve)  on  the  dividers;  fix  one  leg  at  2, 
and  describe  the  arc  Y,  cutting  the  major  where  the  pins  are  shown 
fixed,  at  o  and  o.    Now  take  a  piece  of  string  long  enough  to  form  a 


334 


STAIR-BUILDING  71 

loop  around  the  two  and  extending,  when  tight,  to  2,  where  the  pencil 
is  placed ;  and,  keeping  the  string  tight,  sweep  the  curve  from  b  to  b. 


Step 


Step 


Step 


Step 


Platform 


Joint 


Fig.  131.    Arranging  Risers  in 

Quarter-Turn  between 

Two  Flights. 


^ 


Jomt 


Step 


Step    1 


The  same  method,  for  finding  the  major  and  foci  for  the  outside 
curve,  is  shown  in  the  diagram.  The  line  drawn  from  b  on  the  outside 
of  the  joint  at  n,  to  w,  is  the  semi-major  for  the  outside  curve;  and  the 


Riser 


Fig.  132.    Arrangement  of  Risers  around  Quarter-Turn  Giv- 
ing Tangents  Equal  Pitch  with  Connecting  Flight. 

points  where  the  outside  pins  are  shown  on  the  major  will  be  the  foci. 
To  draw  the  curves  of  the  mould  according  to  this  method,  which 


335 


72 


STAIR-BUILDING 


1 


m" 


is  a  scientific  one,  may  seem  a  complicated  problem;  but  once  it  is 
understood,  it  becomes  very  simple,    A  simpler  way  to  draw  them, 
however,  is  shown  in  Fig.  320. 

The  width  on  the  minor  and  at  each  end 
will  have  to  be  determined  by  the  method  just 
explained  in  connection  with  Fig.  119.  In 
Fig  120,  the  points  b  at  the  ends,  and  the  points 
in  which  the  circumference  of  the  circle  cuts 
the  minor  axis,  will  be  points  contained  in 
the  curves,  as  already  explained.  Now  take  a  flexible  lath;  bend  it 
to  touch  b,  z,  and  b  for  the  inside  curve,  and  6,  iv,  and  b  for  the  outside 
curve.  This  method  is  handy  where  the  curve  is  comparatively  flat, 
as  in  the  example  here  shown;  but  where  the  mould  has  a  sharp  curva- 


Fig.  133.    Finding  Bevel 

for  Wreath  of  Plan, 

Fig.  133. 


Fig.  134.    Well-Hole  with  Riser  in  Center.    Tangents  of  Face-Mould,  and  Central  Line 

of  Rail,  Developed. 

ture,  as  in  case  of  the  one  shown  in  Fig.  101,  the  method  shown  in  Fig. 
119  must  be  adhered  to. 

With  a  clear  knowledge  of  the  above  two  methods,  the  student 
will  be  able  to  put  curves  on  any  mould. 

The  mould  shown  in  these  two  diagrams,  Figs.  119  and  120,  is 
for  the  upper  wreath,  extending  from  A  to  w  in  Fig.  94  A  practical 
handrailer  would  draw  only  what  is  shown  in  Fig.  120.    He  would 


336 


STAIR-BUILDING 


73 


take  the  lengths  of  tangents  from  Fig.  94,  and  place  them  as  shown 
at  hm  and  m  n.  By  comparing  Fig.  120  with  the  tangents  of  the 
upper  wreath  in  Fig.  94,  it  will  be  easy  for  the  student  to  understand 


Fig.  135.    Arrangement  of  Risers  in 
'  Stair  with.  Obtuse- Angle  Plan. 


Fig.  136.  Arrangement  of  Risers  in  Obtuse- 
Angle  Plan,  Giving  Equal  Pitch  over  Tan- 
gents  and  Flights.    Face-Mould   Developed. 


the  remaining  lines  shown  in  Fig.  120.    The  bevels  are  shown  applied 

to  the  mould  in  Fig.  105,  to  give  it  the  twist.    In  Fig.  106,  is  shown  how, 

after  the  rail  is  twisted  and 

placed  in  position  over  and 

above  the  quadrant  c  din 

Fig.  94,  its  sides  will  be 

plumb. 

In  Fig.  121  are  shown 
the  tangents  taken  from 
the  bottom  wreath  in  Fig. 
95  It  was  shown  how  to 
develop  the  section  and 
find  the  angle  for  the  tan- 
gents in  the  face-mould,  Fig-  137.  Arrangement  of  Risers  in  Flight  with 
°         ^  Curve  at  Landing. 

m  Fig.  113.    The  method 

shown  in  Fig.  119  for  putting  on  the  curves,  would  be  the  most  suitable. 

Fig.  121  is  presented  more  for  the  purposes  of  study  than  as  a 

method  of  construction.    It  contains  all  the  lines  made  use  of  to  find 


337 


74 


STAIR-BUILDING 


A 

&> 

"-1 

Landing  Rail 

/*^- — 1             1 

Jy^ 

Landing  FHoor 

\ 

A  PI 

an 

Fig.  138.    Development  of  Pace-Moulds 
for  Plan,  Fig.  137. 


the  developed  section  of  a  plane  inclining  unequally  in  two  different 
directions,  as  shown  in  Fig.  122. 

Arrangement  of  Risers  in  and  around  Well-Hole.  An  important 
matter  in  wreath  construction  is  to  have  a  knowledge  of  how  to 

arrange  the  risers  in  and  around  a 
well-hole.  A  great  deal  of  labor 
and  material  is  saved  through  it; 
also  a  far  better  appearance  to  the 
finished  rail  may  be  secured. 

In  level-landing  stairways,  the 
easiest  example  is  the  one  shown 
in  Fig.  123,  in  which  the  radius  of 
the  central  line  of  rail  is  made 
equal  to  one-half  the  width  of  a  tread.  In  the  diagram  the  radius  is 
shown  to  be  5  inches,  and  the  treads  10  inches.  The  risers  are  placed 
in  the  springing,  as  at  a  and  a.  The  elevation  of  the  tangents  by  this 
arrangement  will  be,  as  shown,  one  level  and  one  inclined,  for  each 
piece  of  wreath.  When  in  this  position,  there  is  no  trouble  in  finding 
the  angle  of  the  tangent  as  required  on  the  face-mould,  owing  to  that 
angle,  as  in  every  such  case,  being  a  right  angle,  as  shown  at  w ;  also 
no  special  bevel  will  have  to  be  found,  because  the  upper  bevel  of  the 
pitch-board  contains  the  angle  required. 

The  same  results  are  obtained  in  the  example  shown  in  Fig. 
124,  in  which  the  radius  of  the  well-hole  is  larger  than  half  the  width 
of  a  tread,  by  placing  the  riser  a  at  a  distance  from  c  equal  to  half 
the  width  of  a  tread,  instead  of  at  the  springing  as  in  the  preceding 
example. 

In  Fig.  125  is  shown  a  case  where  the  risers  are  placed  at  a  dis- 
tance from  c  equal  to  a  full  tread,  the  effect  in  respect  to  the  tangents 
of  the  face-mould  and  bevel  being  the  same  as  in  the  two  preceding 
examples.  In  Fig.  126  is  shown  the  plan  of  Fig.  123;  in  Fig.  127, 
the  plan  of  Fig.  124;  and  in  Fig.  128,  the  plan  of  Fig.  125.  For  the 
wreaths  shown  in  all  these  figures,  there  will  be  no  necessity  of  spring- 
ing the  plank,  which  is  a  term  used  in  handrailing  to  denote  the 
twisting  of  the  wreath;  and  no  other  bevel  than  the  one  at  the  upper 
end  of  the  pitch-board  will  be  required.  This  type  of  wreath,  also, 
is  the  one  that  is  required  at  the  top  of  a  landing  when  the  rail  of  the 
flight  intersects  with  a  level-landing  rail. 


338 


STAIR-BUILDING  75 

In  Fig.  129  is  shown  a  very  simple  method  of  drawing  the  face- 
mould  for  this  wreath  from  the  pitch-board.  Make  a  c  equal  to  the 
radius  of  the  plan  central  line  of  rail  as  shown  at  the  curve  in  Fig.  130. 
From  where  line  c  c"  cuts  the  long  side  of  the  pitch-board,  the 
line  c"  a"  is  drawn  at  right  angles  to  the  long  edge,  and  is  made 
equal  to  the  length  of  the  plan  tangent  a  c,  Fig.  130.  The  curve  is 
drawn  by  means  of  pins  and  string  or  a  trammel. 

In  Fig.  131  is  shown  a  quarter-turn  between  two  flights.  The 
correct  method  of  placing  the  risers  in  and  around  the  curve,  is  to  put 
the  last  one  in  the  first  flight  one-half  a  step  from  springing  c,  and 
the  first  one  in  the  second  fiight  one-half  a  step  from  a,  leaving  a  space 
in  the  curve  equal  to  a  full  tread.  By  this  arrangement,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  132,  the  pitch-line  of  the  tangents  will  equal  the  pitch  of  the 
connecting  flight,  thus  securing  the  second  easiest  condition  of  tan- 
gents for  the  face-mould — namely,  as  shown,  two  equal  tangents. 
For  this  wreath,  only  one  bevel  will  be  needed,  and  it  is  made  up  of 
the  radius  of  the  plan  central  line  of  the  rail  o  c,  Fig.  131,  for  base, 
and  the  line  1-2,  Fig.  132,  for  altitude,  as  shown  in  Fig.  133. 

The  bevel  shown  in  this  figure  has  been  previously  explained  in 
Figs.  105  and  106.    It  is  to  be  applied  to  both  ends  of  the  wreath. 

The  example  shown  in  Fig.  134  is  of  a  well-hole  having  a  riser 
in  the  center.  If  the  radius  of  the  plan  central  line  of  rail  is  made 
equal  to  one-half  a  tread,  the  pitch  of  tangents  will  be  the  same  as 
of  the  flights  adjoining,  thus  securing  two  equal  tangents  for  the  two 
sections  of  wreath.  In  this  figure  the  tangents  of  the  face-mould  are 
developed,  and  also  the  central  line  of  the  rail,  as  shown  over  and 
above  each  quadrant  and  upon  the  pitch-line  of  tangents. 

The  same  method  may  be  employed  in  stairways  having  obtuse- 
angle  and  acute-angle  plans,  as  shown  in  Fig.  135,  in  which  two  flights 
are  placed  at  an  obtuse  angle  to  each  other.  If  the  risers  shown  at 
a  and  a  are  placed  one-half  a  tread  from  c,  this  will  produce  in  the 
elevation  a  pitch-line  over  the  tangents  equal  to  that  over  the  flights 
adjoining,  as  shown  in  Fig.  136,  in  which  also  is  shown  the  face-mould 
for  the  wreath  that  will  span  over  the  curve  from  one  flight  to  another. 

In  Fig.  137  is  shown  a  flight  having  the  same  curve  at  a  landing. 
The  same  arrangement  is  adhered  to  respecting  the  placing  of  the 
risers,  as  shown  at  a  and  a.  In  Fig.  138  is  shown  how  to  develop  the 
face-moulds. 


339 


THE  STEEL  SQUARE 

INTRODUCTORY 

The  Standard  Steel  Square  has  a  blade  24  inches  long  and  2 
inches  wide,  and  a  tongue  from  14  to  18  inches  long  and  1^  inches  wide. 

The  blade  is  at  right  angles  to  the  tongue. 

The  face  of  the  square  is  shown  in  Fig.  1.  It  is  always  stamped 
with  the  manufacturer's  name  and  number. 

The  reverse  is  the  back  (see  Fig.  2). 

The  longer  arm  is  the  blade;  the  shorter  arm,  the  tongue. 

In  the  center  of  the  tongue,  on  the  face  side,  will  be  found  two 
parallel  lines  divided  into  spaces  (see  Fig.  1);  this  is  the  octagon  scale. 

The  spaces  will  be  found  numbered  10,  20,  30,  40,  50,  60,  and  70, 
when  the  tongue  is  18  inches  long. 

To  draw  an  octagon  of  8  inches  square,  draw  a  square  8  inches 
each  way,  and  draw  a  perpendicular  and  a  horizontal  line  through 
its  center. 

To  find  the  length  of  the  octagon  side,  place  one  point  of  a  com- 
pass on  any  of  the  main  divisions  of  the  scale,  and  the  other  point  of 
the  compass  on  the  eighth  subdivision;  then  step  this  length  off  on  each 
side  of  the  center  lines  on  the  side  of  the  square,  which  will  give  the 
points  from  which  to  draw  the  octagon  lines. 

The  diameter  of  the  octagon  must  equal  in  Inches  the  number  of 
spaces  taken  from  the  square. 

On  the  opposite  side  of  the  tongue,  in  the  center,  will  be  found 
the  brace  rule  (see  Fig.  3).  The  fractions  denote  the  rise  and  run  of 
the  brace,  and  the  decimals  the  length.  For  example,  a  brace  of  36 
inches  run  and  36  inches  rise,  will  have  a  length  of  50.91  inches;  a 
brace  of  42  inches  run  and  42  inches  rise,  will  have  a  length  of  59.40 
inches;  etc. 

On  the  back  of  the  blade  (Fig.  4)  will  be  found  the  board  measure, 
where  eight  parallel  lines  running  along  the  length  of  the  blade  are 
shown  and  divided  at  every  inch  by  cross-lines.  Under  12,  ,on  the 
outer  edge  of  the  blade,  will  be  found  the  various  lengths  of  the  boards, 
as  8,  9,  10,  11,  12,  etc.    For  example,  take  a  board  14  feet  long  and  9 


341 


THE  STEEL  SQUARE 


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343 


THE  STEEL  SQUARE 


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343 


THE  STEEL  SQUARE 


Fig.  5. 


Use  of  Steel  Square  to  Find  Miter  and  Side  of 
Pentagon. 


inches  wide.  To 
find  the  contents, 
look  under  12,  and 
find  14;  then  fol- 
low this  space  along 
to  the  cross-line  un- 
der 9,  the  width  of 
the  board ;  and  here 
is  found  10  feet  6 
inches,  denoting 
the  contents  of  a 
board  14  feet  long 
and  9  inches  wide. 
To  Find  the  Mi= 
ter  and  Length  of 
Side  for  any  Poly= 
gon,  with  the  Steel 
Square.  In  Fig.  5 
is  shown  a  pentagon  figure.  The  miters  of  the  pentagon  stand  at 
72  degrees  with  each  other,  and  are  found  by  dividing  360  by  5,  the 
number  of  sides  in  the  pentagon.  But  the  angle  when  applied  to  the 
square  to  obtain  the  miter,  is  only  one-half  of  72,  or  36 
degrees,  and  intersects  the  blade  at  8||,  as  shown  in  Fig.  5. 
By  squaring  up  from  6  on  the  tongue,  intersecting 
the  degree  line  at  a,  the 
center  a  is  determined 
either  for  the  inscribed 
or  the  circumscribed  di- 
ameter, the  radii  being 
a  I  and  a  c,  respec- 
tively» 

The  length  of  the 
sides  will  be  8|f  inches 
to  the  foot. 

If  the  length  of  the 
inscribed  diameter  be  8 
feet,  then  the  sides  would 

1       o  .  .  o  o  a    •      1  Fig.  6.    Use  of  Steel  Squaro  to  Find  Miter  and  Side  of 

be  S  X  8f  f  inches.  Hexagon. 


344 


THE  STEEL  SQUARE 


2011 
12 

7 

Si 


The  figures  to  use  for  other  polygons  are  as  follows : 
Triangle 
Square 
Hexagon 
Nonagon 
Decagon 
In  Fig.  6  the  same  process  is  used  in  finding  the 
miter  and  side  of  the  hexagon  polygon. 

To  find  the  degree  line,  360  is  divided  by  6,  the  num- 
ber of  sides,  as  follows: 
360  -T-  6  =  60;  and 
60  H-  2  =  30  degrees. 

Now,  from  12  on 
tongue,  draw  a  line 
making  an  angle  of  30 
degrees  with  the  tongue. 
It  will  cut  the  blade  in 
7  as  shown;  and  from  7 
to  m,  the  heel  of  the 
square,  will  be  the  length 
of  the  side.  From  6  on 
tongue,  erect  a  line  to 
cut  the  degree  line  in  c;  and  with  c  as  center,  describe  a  circle  having 
the  radius  of  c  7;  and  around  the  circle,  complete  the  hexagon  by 
taking  the  length  7  m  with  the  compass  for  each  side,  as  shown. 

In  Fig.  7  the  same  process  is  shown  applied  to  the  octagon.  The 
degree  line  in  all  the  polygons  is  found  by  dividing  360  by  the  number 
of  sides  in  the  figure: 

360  H-  8  =  45;  and  45  -^  2  =  22^  degrees. 
This  gives  the  degree  line  for  the  octagon.    Complete  the  process  as 
was  described  for  the  other  polygons. 

By  using  the  following  figures  for  the  various  polygons,  the  miter 
lines  may  be  found ;  but  in  these  figures  no  account  is  taken  of   the 
relative  size  of  sides  to  the  foot  as  in  the  figures  preceding: 
Triangle         7  in.  and  4  in. 
Pentagon       11     "      "    8  " 
Hexagon         4    «      «    7" 
Heptagon      12|  "      "    6" 


Use  of  Steel  Square  to  Find  Miter  and  Side 
of  Octagon. 


345 


THE  STEEL  SQUARE 


Fig.  8.    Use  of  Square  to  Find  Miter  of  EcLuilateral  Triangle. 


Octagon        17    in.  and  7  in. 
Nonagon       22^  "      "    9 " 
Decagon         9^  "      "    3 " 
The  miter  is  to  be  drawn  along  the  Hne  of  the  first  column,  as  shown 

for  the  triangle  in 
Fig.  8,  and  for  the 
hexagon  in  Fig.  9. 
In  Fig.  10  is 
shown  a  diagram 
for  finding  degrees 
on  the  square.  For 
example,  if  a  pitch 
of  35  degrees  is  re- 
quired, use  8^Y  oil 
tongue  and  12  on 
blade;  if  45 degrees, 
use  12  on  tongue 
and  12  on  blade; 
etc. 
In  Fig.  11  is  shown  the  relative  length  of  run  for  a  rafter  and  a 
hip,  the  rafter  being  12  inches  and  the  hip  17  inches.  The  reason,  as 
shown  in  this  diagram,  why  17  is 
taken  for  the  run  of  the  hip,  in- 
stead of  12  as  for  the  common 
rafter,  is  that  the  seats  of  the  com- 
mon rafter  and  hip  do  not  run 
parallel  with  each  other,  but  di- 
verge in  roofs  of  equal  pitch  at  an 
angle  of  45  degrees;  therefore,  17 
inches  taken  on  the  run  of  the  hip 
is  equal  to  only  12  inches  when 
taken  on  that  of  the  common 
rafter,  as  shown  by  the  dotted 
line  from  heel  to  heel  of  the  two 
squares  in  Fig.  11. 

In  Fig.  12  is  shown  how 
other  figures  on  the  square  may  be 
found  for  corners  that  deviate  from  the  45  degrees.    It  is  shown  that 


Fig.  9.    Use  of  Square  to  Find  Miter  of 
Hexagon. 


346 


THE  STEEL  SQUARE  7 

for  a  pentagon,  which  makes  a  36-degree  angle  with  the  plate,  the 
figure  to  be  used  =-, 
on  the  square  for  T 
run  is  14|  inches; 
for    a    hexagon, 
which   makes   a 
30-degree    angle 
with    the    plate, 
the  figure  will  be 
13|  inches;  and 
for  an   octagon, 
which  makes  an 
angle  of  22^  de- 
grees   with    the 
plate,  the  figure 
to    use    on    the 
square    for    run 
of  hip   to  corre- 
spond to  tne  run        pig_  jg.    Diagram  for  Finding  Pitches  of  "Various  Degrees 
2     ,1  by  Means  of  the  Steel  Square. 

or    the  common 

rafters,  will  be  13  inches.    It  will  be  observed  that  the  height  in  each 

case  is  9  inches. 

Fig.  13  illustrates  a 
method  of  finding  the 
relative  height  of  a  hip 
or  valley  per  foot  run  to 
that  of  the  common  raf- 
ter. The  square  is  shown 
placed  with  12  on  blade 
and  9  on  tongue  for  the 
common  rafter;  and 
shows  that  for  the  hip  the 
rise  is  only  6y\  inches. 

The  Steel  Square  as 
Applied  in  Roof  Fram= 

Fig.  11.    Square  Applied  to  Determine  Relative  inff.      Roof      framing      at 

Length  of  Run  for  Rafter  and  Hip.  "  ^  ,        ,  , 

present  is  as  simple  as  it 
possibly  can  be,  so  that  any  attempt  at  a  new  method  would  be  super- 


347 


8  THE  STEEL  SQUARE 

fluous.  There  may,  however,  be  a  certain  way  of  presenting  the  sub- 
ject that  will  carry  with  it  almost  the  weight  assigned  to  a  new  theory, 
making  what  is  already  simple  still  more  simple. 

The  steel  square  is  a  mighty  factor  in  roof  framing,  and  without 
doubt  the  greatest  tool  in  practical  potency  that  ever  was  invented 


Fig.  13.    Use  of  Square  to  Determine  Length  of  Run  for  Rafters  on  Corners 
Other  than  45°. 

for  the  carpenter.  With  its  use  the  lengths  and  bevels  of  every  piece 
of  timber  that  goes  into  the  construction  of  the  most  intricate  design 
of  roof,  can  easily  be  obtained,  and  that  with  but  very  little  knowledge 
of  lines. 

In  roofs  of  equal  pitch,  as  illustrated  in  Fig.  14,  the  steel  square 
is  all  that  is  required  if  one  properly  understands  how  to  handle  it. 


348 


HOU5E  AT  ROYSTON 

JOHN  BELCHER  AR  A  ARCHT 


riRCT     FLOOR     PLAN 


GROUND     FLOOR    PLAN 

+ H h H 


HOUSE  AT  ROYSTON,  ENGLAND. 

John  Belcher,  A.  R.  A.,  Architect. 

Walls  Built  of  Red  Bricks  with  Overhanging  Tiles  and  a  Tiled  Roof.    The  Entrance  Porch  is  of  Oak 

JRexirinted  by  permiC'Sion  f7om  "Modern  Cottage  A'>'chitecture,"  John  Lane  Co.,  Publisher" 


THE  STEEL  SQUARE 


9 


What  is  meant  by  a  fitch  of  a  roof,  is  the  number  of  inches  it 
rises  to  the  foot  of  run. 

In  Fig.  15  is  shown  the  steel  square  with  figures  representing 


Fig.  13.    Method  of  Finding  Relative  Height  of  Hip  or  Valley  per  Foot  of  Run 
to  that  of  Common  Rafter. 

the  various  pitches  to  the  foot  of  rim.  For  the  ^-pitch  roof ,  the  figures 
as  shown,  from  12  on  tongue  to  12  on  blade,  are  those  to  be  used  on 
the  steel  square  for  the  common  rafter;  and  for  f  pitch,  the  figures  to 
be  used  on  the  square  will  be  12  and  9,  as  shown. 


ro     Ridge     ^ 

M 

,J//alleysJ 
AVaney 


a    Plate 


Fig.  14.    Diagram  to  Illustrate  Use  of  Steel  Square  in  Laying  Out  Timbers 
of  Roofs  of  Equal  Pitch. 

To  understand  this  figure,  it  is  necessary  only  to  keep  in  mind 
that  the  pitch  of  a  roof  is  reckoned  from  the  span.  Since  the  run  in  each 
pitch  as  shown  is  12  inches,  the  span  is  two  times  12  inches,  which 


351 


10 


THE  STEEL  SQUARE 


equals  24  inches;  hence,  12  on  blade  to  represent  the  foot  run,  and  12 
on  tongue  to  represent  the  rise  over  |  the  span,  will  be  the  figures  on 
the  square  for  a  ^-pitch  roof. 

For  the  f  pitch,  the  figures  are  shown  to  be  12  on  tongue  and  9 
on  blade,  9  being  f  of  the  span,  24  inches. 

The  same  rule  applies  to  all  the  pitches.  The  ^  pitch  is  shown 
to  rise  4  inches  to  the  foot  of  run,  because  4  inches  is  ^  of  the  span,  24 
inches,  the  ^  pitch  is  shown  to  rise  8  inches  to  the  foot  of  run,  because 

8  inches  is  ^  of  the  span,  24  inches;  etc. 

The  roof  referred  to  in  Figs.  16  and  17  is  to 
rise  9  inches  to  the  foot  of  run;  it  is  therefore  a 
f-pitch  roof.  For  all  the  common  rafters,  the  fig- 
ures to  be  used  on  the  square  will  be  12  on  blade 
to  represent  the  run,  and  9  on  tongue  to  represent 
the  rise  to  the  foot  of  run;  and  for  all  the  hips 
and  valleys,  17  on  blade  to  represent  the  run,  and 

9  on  tongue  to  represent  the  rise  of  the  roof  to  the 
foot  of  run. 

Why  17  represents  the  run  for  all  the  hips 
and  valleys,  will  be  understood  by  examining 
Fig.  19,  in  which  17  is  shown  to  be  the  diag- 
onal of  a  foot  square. 

In  equal-pitch  roofs  the 
corners  are  square,  and  the 
plan  of  the  hip  or  valley  will  /  ^ 

always  be  a  diagonal  of  a 
square  corner  as  shown  at  1,  2, 
3,  and  5  in  Fig.  14. 

In  Fig.  18 
are  shown  ^ 
pitch,  I  pitch 
and  "2-  pitch  over 
a  square  corner. 

The  figures  to  be  used  on  the  square  for  the  hip,  will  be  17  for 
run  in  each  case.  For  the  i  pitch,  the  figures  to  be  used  would  be 
17  inches  run  and  4  inches  rise,  to  correspond  with  the  12  inches  run 
and  4  inches  rise  of  the  common  rafter.  For  the  f  pitch,  the  figures 
to  be  used  for  hip  would  be  17  inches  run  and  9  inches  rise,  to  corre- 


/     / 


/.■' 


V      CO 


I      I      I 


'l^ITi  Tl0"^|9   18    17    16  15   K   i3  12   |l 


w 

1 
■531 


2 

-o3  2  Pitch 

it 
■24 

il 

3 
"05'  ? 


7 
24 
J. 
4 

S, 
£4 

I 

B 
j_ 

6 
j_ 
12 
J. 
24 


Fig.  15.    Steel  Square  Giving  Various  Pitches  to  Foot  of  Run. 


332 


THE  STEEL  SQUARE 


11 


spond  with  the  12  inches  run  and  9  inches  rise  of  the  common  rafter; 
and  for  the  ^  pitch,  the  figures  to  be  used  on  the  square  will  be  17 
inches  run  and  12  inches  rise,  to  correspond  with  the  12  inches  run 
and  12  inches  rise  of  the  common  rafter. 

It  will  be  observed  from  above,  that  in  all  cases  where  the  plan 
of  the  hip  or  valley  is  a  diagonal  of  a  square,  the  figures  to  be  used  on 


Top    cut  for   i3ft.  6in. 


Corr>TY^on  •  Rafter 


Plurrvb  Cut 


Fig.  16.    Method  of  Laying  Out  Common  Rafters  of  a  %-Pitch  Roof. 

the  square  for  run  will  be  17  inches;  and  for  the  rise,  whatever  the  roof 
rises  to  the  foot  of  run.  It  should  also  be  remembered  that  this  is  the 
condition  in  all  roofs  of  equal  pitch,  where  the  angle  of  the  hip  or 
valley  is  a  45-degree  angle,  or,  in  other  words,  where  we  have  the 
diagonal  of  a  square. 

It  has  been  shown  in  Fig.  12  how  other  figures  for  other  plan 
angles  may  be  found;  and  that  in  each  case  the  figures  for  run  vary 

Heel  cut  of  "hip  ....  ^  u- 

^hip      Top  cut  -for  i3ft.6in.  rup  of  hipj 


Top  cut  for  13  ft.  run  of  hip 

Fig.  17.    Method  of  Laying  Out  Hips  and  Valleys  of  a  %-Pitch  Roof. 

according  to  the  plan  angle  of  the  hip  or  valley,  while  the  figure  for  the 
height  in  each  case  is  similar. 

In  Fig.  14  are  shown  a  variety  of  runs  for  common  rafters,  but 
all  have  the  same  pitch;  they  rise  9  inches  to  the  foot  of  run.  The  main 


353 


12 


THE  STEEL  SQUARE 


roof  is  shown  to  have  a  span  of  27  feet,  which  makes  the  run  of  the 
common  rafter  13  feet  6  inches.  The  run  of  the  front  wing  is  shown 
to  be  10  feet  4  inches;  and  the  run  of  the  small  gable  at  the  left  corner 
of  the  front,  is  shown  to  be  8  feet. 

The  diversity  exhibited  in  the  runs,  and  especially  the  fractional 
part  of  a  foot  shown  in  two  of  them,  will  afford  an  opportunity  to  treat 
of  the  main  difficulties  in  laying  out  roof  timbers  in  roofs  of  equal 
pitch.    Let  it  be  determined  to  have  a  rise  of  9  inches  to  the  foot  of 

run;  and  in  this  connec- 
tion it  may  be  well  to  re- 
member that  the  propor- 
tional rise  to  the  foot  run 
for  roofs  of  equal  pitch 
makes  not  the  least  dif- 
ference in  the  method  of 
treatment. 

To  lay  out  the  common 
rafters  for  the  main  roof, 
which  has  a  run  of  13  feet 
6  inches,  proceed  as  shown 
in  Fig.  16. 

Take  12  on  the  blade 
and  9  on  the  tongue,  and 
step  13  times  along  the 
rafter  timber.  This  will 
give  the  length  of  rafter 
for  13  feet  of  run.  In 
this  example,  however, 
there  is  another  6  inches 
of  run  to  cover.  For  this  additional  length,  take  6  inches  on  the  blade 
(it  being  ^  a  foot  run)  for  run,  and  take  ^  of  9  on  the  tongue  (which  is 
4^  inches),  and  step  one  time.  This,  in  addition  to  what  has  already 
been  found  by  stepping  13  times  with  12  and  9,  will  give  the  full  length 

of  the  rafter. 

The  square  with  12  on  blade  and  9  on  tongue  will  give  the  heel 

and  plumb  cuts. 

Another  method  of  finding  the  length  of  rafter  for  the  6  inches 
is  shown  in  Fig.  16,  where  the  square  is  shown  applied  to  the  rafter 


Fig.  18.    Method  of  Laying  Out  Hips  and  Rafters  for 
Roofs  of  Various  Pitches  over  Square  Corner. 


354 


TH]E  STEEL  SQUARE  13 

timber  for  the  plumb  cut.  Square  No.  1  is  shown  applied  with  12  on 
blade  and  9  on  tongue  for  the  length  of  the  13  feet.  Square  from  this 
cut,  measure  6  inches,  the  additional  inches  in  the  run;  and  to  this 
point  move  the  square,  holding  it  on  the  side  of  the  rafter  timber 
with  12  on  blade  and  9  on  tongue,  as  for  a  full  foot  run. 

It  will  be  observed  that  this  method  is  easily  adapted  to  find  any 
fractional  part  of  a  foot  in  the  length  of  rafters. 

In  the  front  gable,  Fig.  14,  the  fractional  part  of  a  foot  is  4  inches 
to  be  added  to  10  feet  of  run;  therefore,  in  that  case,  the  line  shown 
measured  to  6  inches  in  Fig.  16  would  measure  only  4  inches  for  the 
front  gable. 

Heel  Cut  of  Common  Rafter.  In  Fig.  16  is  also  shown  a  method 
to  lay  out  the  heel  cut  of  a  common  rafter.  The  square  is  shown 
applied  with  12  on  blade  and  9  on  tongue;  and  from  where  the  12  on 
the  square  intersects  the  edge  of  the  rafter  timber,  a  line  is  drawn 
square  to  the  blade  as  shown  by  the  dotted  line  from  12  to  a.  Then 
the  thickness  of  the  part  of  the  rafter  that  is  to  project  beyond  the 
plate  to  hold  the  cornice,  is  gauged  to  intersect  the  dotted  line  at  a; 
and  from  a,  the  heel  cut  is  drawn  with  the  square  having  12  on  blade 
and  9  on  tongue,  marking  along  the  blade  for  the  cut. 

The  common  rafter  for  the  front  wing,  which  is  shown  to  have 
a  run  of  10  feet  4  inches,  is  laid  out  precisely  the  same,  except  that 
for  this  rafter  the  square  with  12  on  blade  and  9  on  tongue  will  have 
to  be  stepped  along  the  rafter  timber  only  10  times  for  the  10  feet  of 
run;  and  for  the  fractional  part  of  a  foot  (4  inches)  which  is  in  the  run, 
either  of  the  two  methods  already  shown  for  the  main  rafter  may 
be  used. 

The  proportional  figures  to  be  used  on  the  square  for  the  4  inches 
will  be  4  on  blade  and  2|  on  tongue;  and  if  the  second  method  is  used, 
make  the  addition  to  the  length  of  rafter  for  10  feet,  by  drawing  a 
line  4  inches  square  from  the  tongue  of  square  No.  1  (see  Fig.  16), 
instead  of  6  inches  as  there  shown  for  the  main  rafter. 

Hips.  Three  of  the  hips  are  shown  in  Fig.  14  to  extend  from 
the  plate  to  the  ridge-pole;  they  are  marked  in  the  figure  as  1,  2,  and 
3  respectively,  and  are  shown  in  plan  to  be  diagonals  of  a  square 
measuring  13  feet  6  inches  by  13  feet  6  inches;  they  make  an  angle, 
therefore,  of  45  degrees  with  the  plate. 


355 


14 


THE  STEEL  SQUARE 


In  Fig.  18  it  has  been  shown  that  a  hip  standing  at  an  angle  of 
45  degrees  with  the  plate  will  have  a  run  of  17  inches  for  every  foot 
run  of  the  common  rafter.  Therefore,  to  lay  out  the  hips,  the  figures 
on  the  square  will  be  17  for  run  and  9  for  rise;  and  by  stepping  13 
times  along  the  hip  rafter  timber,  the  length  of  hip  for  13  feet  of  run 
is  obtained.  The  length  for  the  additional  6  inches  in  the  run  may 
be  found  by  squaring  a  distance  of  8^  inches,  as  shown  in  Fig.  17, 

from  the  tongue  of  the  square,  and 
moving  square  No.  1  along  the  edge 
of  the  timber,  holding  the  blade  on 
17  and  tongue  on  9,  and  marking 
the  plumb  cut  where  the  dotted  line 
is  shown. 

In  Fig.  18  is  shown  how  to  find  the 
relative  run  length  of  a  portion  of  a 
hip  to  correspond  to  that  of  a  frac- 
tional part  of  a  foot  in  the  length 
of  the  common  rafter.  From  12 
inches,  measure  along  the  run  of 
the  common  rafter  6  inches,  and 
drop  a  line  to  cut  the  diagonal  line 
From  m  to  a,  along  the  diagonal  line,  will  be  the  relative  run 


19.     Diagram    Showing   Relative 
'Lengths  of   Run  for  Hips  and 
Common  Rafters  in  Equal- 
Pitch  Roofs. 


m  m. 


length  of  the  part  of  hip  to  correspond  with  6  inches  run  of  the  common 
rafter,  and  it  measures  8^  inches. 

The  same  results  may  be  obtained  by  the  following  method  of 
figuring: 


As  12 : 17 

6 

12)102 

8 


6 


6  = 


In  Fig.  19  is  shown  a  12-inch  square, 
the  diagonal  m  being  17  inches.  By 
drawing  lines  from  the  base  a  6  to  cut  the 
diagonal  line,  the  part  of  the  hip  to  corre- 
spond to  that  of  the  common  rafter  will  be 
indicated  on  the  line  17.  In  this  figure 
it  is  shown  that  a  6-inch  run  on  a  &,  which  represents  ihe  run  of  a 
foot  of  a  common  rafter,   will  have  a  corresponding  length   of  8^ 


Fig.  20.    Method  of   Determining 

Run  of  Valley  for  Additional 

Run  in  Common  Rafter. 


356 


THE  STEEL  SQUARE 


15 


inches  run  on  the  Hne  17,  which  represents  the  plan  Kne  of  the  hip  or 
valley  in  all  equal-pitch  roofs. 

In  the  front  gable,  Fig.  14,  it  is  shown  that  the  run  of  the  common 
rafter  is  10  feet  4  inches.    To  find  the  length  of  the  common  rafter. 


Fig.  21.    Corner  of  Square  Building,  Show- 
ing Plan  Lines  of  Plates  and  Hip. 


Fig.  22.    Corner  of  Square  Building,  Show- 
ing Plan  Lines  of  Plates  and  Valley. 


take  12  on  blade  and  9  on  tongue,  and  step  10  times  along  the  rafter 
timber;  and  for  the  fractional  part  of  a  foot  (4  inches),  proceed  as  was 
shown  in  Fig.  16  for  the  rafter  of  the  main  roof;  but  in  this  case  measure 
out  square  to  the  tongue  of  square  No,  1,  4  inches  instead  of  6  inches. 
The  additional  length  for  the  fractional  4  inches  run  can  also  be 
found  by  taking  4  inches  on  blade  and  3  inches  on  tongue  of  square, 
and  stepping  one  time;  this,  in  addition  to  the  length  obtained  by 


Heel  cut  of  Valley 


Fig.  33.    Use  of  Square  to  Determine  Heel  Cut  of  Valley. 

stepping  10  times  along  the  rafter  timber  with  12  on  blade  and  9  on 
tongue,  will  give  the  full  length  of  the  rafter  for  a  run  of  10  feet  4  inches. 
In  the  intersection  of  this  roof  with  the  main  roof,  there  are  shown 
to  be  two  valleys  of  different  lengths.  The  long  one  extends  from  the 
plate  at  n  (Fig.  14)  to  the  ridge  of  the  main  roof  at  m;  it  has  therefore 


357 


16 


THE   STEEL  SQUARE 


/Bevel  to  fit  hips 
^a.ga.in5t   a.  deep 


a  run  of  13  feet  6  inches.  For  the  length,  proceed  as  for  the  hips,  by 
taking  17  on  blade  of  the  square  and  9  on  tongue,  and  stepping  13 
times  for  the  length  of  the  13  feet;  and  for  the  fractional  6  inches, 
proceed  precisely  as  shown  in  Fig.  17  for  the  hip,  by  squaring  out  from 
the  tongue  of  square  No.  1,  8^  inches;  this,  in  addition  to  the  length 
obtained  for  the  13  feet,  will  give  the  full  length  of  the  long  valley  n  m. 
The  length  of  the  short  valley  a  c,  as  shown,  extends  over  the 
run  of  10  feet  4  inches,  and  butts  against  the  side  of  the  long  valley  at  c. 
By  taking  17  on  blade  and  9  on  tongue,  and  stepping  along  the  rafter 
timber  10  times,  the  length  for  the  10  feet  is  found;  and  for  the  4 

inches,  measure  5f 
inches  square  from 
the  tongue  of 
square  No.  1,  in 
the  manner  shown 
in  Fig.  17,  where 
the  8^  inches  is 
2  roofer  Tidgeboard shown  added  for 
the  6  inches  addi- 
tional run  of  the 
main  roof  for  the 
hips. 

The  length  5f  is 
found  as  shown  in 
Fig.  20,  by  meas- 
uring 4  inches  from 
atom  along  the  run 
of  common  rafter  for  one  foot.  Upon  m  erect  a  line  to  cut  the  seat  of 
the  valley  at  c;  from  c  to  a  will  be  the  run  of  the  valley  to  correspond 
with  4  inches  run  of  the  common  rafter,  and  it  will  measure  5f  inches. 
How  to  Treat  the  Heel  Cut  of  Hips  and  Valleys.  Having  found 
the  lengths  of  the  hips  and  valleys  to  correspond  to  the  common  rafters, 
it  will  be  necessary  to  find  also  the  thickness  of  each  above  the  plate 
to  correspond  to  the  thickness  the  common  rafter  will  be  above  the 
plate. 

In  Fig.  21  is  shown  a  corner  of  a  square  building,  showing  the 
plates  and  the  plan  lines  of  a  hip.  The  length  of  the  hip,  as  already 
found,  will  cover  the  span  from  the  ridge  to  the  corner  2;  but  the  sides 


I  I  I  I  1 1  I  I  t  I  I  I  I  I 


Fig.  24. 


Steel  Square  Applied  to  Finding  Bevel  for  Fitting 
Top  of  Hip  or  Valley  to  Ridge. 


358 


THE  STEEL  SQUARE 


17 


[i 


of  the  hip  intersect  the  plates  at  3  and  3  respectively;  therefore  the 
distance  from  2  to  1,  as  shown  in  this  diagram,  is  measured  backwards 
from  a  to  1  in  the  manner  shown  in  Fig.  17;  then  a  plumb  line  is  drawn 
through  1  to  m,  parallel  to  the  plumb  cut  a-17.  From  m  to  o  on  this 
line,  measure  the  same  thickness  as  that  of  the  common  rafter;  and 
through  o  draw  the  heel  cut  to  a  as  shown. 

In  like  manner  the  thickness  of  the  valley  above  the  plate  is  found ; 
but  as  the  valley  as  shown  in  the  plan  figure.  Fig,  22,  projects  beyond 
point  2  before  it  intersects  the  outside  of  the  plates,  the  distance  from 
2  to  1  in  the  case  of  the  valley  will  have  to  be  measured  outwards  from 
2,  as  shown  from 
2tol  in  Fig.  23; 
and  at  the  point 
thus  found  the 
thickness  of  the 
valley  is  to  be 
measured  to  cor- 
respond  with 
that  of  the  com- 
mon rafter  as 
shown  at  m  n. 

In  Fig.  24  is 
shown  the  steel 
square  applied  to 
a  hip  or  valley 
timber  to  cut  the 
bevel    that    will 

fit  the  top  end  against  the  ridge.  The  figures  on  the  square  are  17 
and  19 J.  The  17  represents  the  length  of  the  plan  line  of  the  hip 
or  valley  for  a  foot  of  run,  which,  as  was  shown  in  previous  figures, 
will  always  be  17  inches  in  roofs  of  equal  pitch,  where  the  plan  lines 
stand  at  45  degrees  to  the  plates  and  square  to  each  other. 

The  19j  taken  on  the  blade  represents  the  actual  length  of  a  hip 
or  valley  that  will  span  over  a  run  of  17  inches.  The  bevel  is  marked 
along  the  blade. 

The  cut  across  the  back  of  the  short  valley  to  fit  it  against  the 
side  of  the  long  valley,  will  be  a  square  cut  owing  to  the  two  plan  lines 
being  at  right  angles  to  each  other. 


'  I  I  I  I  I  I  I  I  i.-f  I  l1  I  I  I  I  I  I  I  I  I  I 


/fj  /■  Bevel  to  fit  bacK 

'  -y     of  jacKs  against 

hip  or  valley 


Fig.  25.    Steel  Square  Applied  to  Jack  Rafter  to  Find  Bevel  for 
Pitting  against  Side  of  Hip  or  Valley. 


359 


18 


THE   STEEL  SQUARE 


'2      Run  of  Rafter 


In  Fig.  25  is  shown  the  steel  square  appHed  to  a  jack  rafter  to 
cut  the  back  bevel,  to  fit  it  against  the  side  of  a  hip  or  valley.  The 
figures  on  the  square  are  12  on  tongue  and  15  on  blade,  the  12  repre- 
senting a  foot  run  of  a  common  rafter,  and  the  15  the  length  of  a 
rafter  that  will  span  over  a  foot  run;  marking  along  the 
blade  will  give  the  bevel. 

The  rule  in  every  case  to  find  the  back  bevel  for  jacks  in 
roofs  of  equal  pitch,  is  to  take  12  on  the  tongue  to  represent 
the  foot  run,  and  the  length  of  the  rafter  for  a  foot  of  run  on 
the  blade,  marking  along  the  blade  in  each  case  for  the 
bevel. 

In  a  |-pitch  roof,  which  is  the 

most  common   in  all   parts  of  the    

country,  the  length  of  rafter  for  a    ii  i  i 
foot  of  run  will  be  17  inches;  hence 

Fig.  26.    Finding  Length  to  Shorten 
it  will  be  well   to  remember  that  12  Rafters  for  jacks  per  Foot 

of  Run. 

on  tongue  and  17  on  blade,  marking 

along  the  blade,  will  give  the  bevel  to  fit  a  jack  against  a  hip  or  a 

valley  in  a  ^-pitch  roof. 

In  a  roof  having  a  rise  of  9  inches  to  the  foot  of  run,  such  as  the 
one  under  consideration,  the  length  of  rafter  for  one  foot  of  run  will 
be  15  inches.  The  square  as  shown  in  Fig.  25,  with  12  on  tongue  and 
15  on  blade,  will  give  the  bevel  by  marking  along  the  blade. 

To  find  the  length  of  a  rafter  for  a  foot  of  run  for  any  other  pitch, 
place  the  two-foot  rule  diagonally  from  12  on  the  blade  of  the  square 
to  the  figure  on  tongue  representing  the  rise  of  the  roof  to  the  foot  of 

run ;  the  rule  will  give  the  length  of  the 
rafter  that  will  span  over  one  foot  of 
run. 

The  length  of  rafter  for  a  foot  of 

run  will  also  determine  the  difference 

in  lengths  of  jacks.    For  example,  if  a 

roof  rises  12  inches  to  one  foot  of  run, 

the  rafter  over  this  span  has  been  found 

to  be  17  inches;  this,  therefore,  is  the 

number  of  inches  each  jack  is  shortened  in  one  foot  of  run.    If  the 

rise  of  the  roof  is  8  inches  to  the  foot  of  run,  the  length  of  the  rafter  is 

found  for  one  foot  of  run,  by  placing  the  rule  diagonally  from  12  on 


Fig.  27.    Finding  Length  of  Jack 
Rafter  in  Yi-Fiteh  Roof. 


360 


THE  STEEL  SQUARE 


19 


tongue  to  8  on  blade,  which  gives  14^  inches,  as  shown  in  Fig.  26. 
This,  therefore,  will  be  the  number  of  inches  the  jacks  are  to  be 
shortened  in  a  roof  rising  8  inches  to  the  foot  of  run.  If  the  jacks  are 
placed  24  inches  from  center  to  center,  then  multiply  14^  by  2  ==  29 
inches. 

In  Fig.  27  is  shown  how  to  find 
the  length  with  the  steel  square.  The 
square  is  placed  on  the  jack  timber 
rafter  with  the  figures  that  have  been 
used  to  cut  the  common  rafter.  In 
Fig.  27,  12  on  blade  and  12  on  tongue 
were  the  figures  used  to  cut  the  com- 
mon rafter,    the   roof   being  ^  pitch, 

rising  12  inches  to  the  foot  of  run.  In  the  diagram  it  is  shown  how 
to  find  the  length  of  a  jack  rafter  if  placed  16  inches  from  center  to 
center.  The  method  is  to  move  the  square  as  shown  along  the  line  of 
the  blade  until  the  blade  measures  16  inches;  the  tongue  then  would  be 
as  shown  from  w  to  m,  and -the  length  of  the  jack  would  be  from  12  on 
blade  to  m  on  tongue,  on  the  edge  of  the  jack  rafter  timber  as  shown. 

This  latter  method  becomes  convenient  when  the  space  between 
jacks  is  less  than  18  inches;  but  if  used  when  the  space  is  more  than 


Fig.  28.    Finding  Length  of  Jack 
Rafter  in  %-Pitcli  Roof. 


Fig.  39, 


Method  of  Determining  Length  of  Jacks  Between  Hips  and  Valleys; 
also  Bevels  for  Jacks,  Hips,  and  Valleys. 


18  inches  it  will  become  necessary  to  use  two  squares;  otherwise  the 
tongue  as  shown  at  m  would  not  reach  the  edge  of  the  timber. 

In  Fig.  28  the  same  method  is  shown  for  finding  the  length  of  a 
jack  rafter  for  a  roof  rising  9  inches  to  the  foot  of  run,  with  the  jacks 
placed  18  inches  center  to  center.  The  square  in  this  diagram  is 
shown  placed  on  the  jack  rafter  timber  with  12  on  blade  and  9  on 


361 


20 


THE  STEEL  SQUARE 


tongue;  then  it  is  moved  forward  along  the  Hne  of  the  blade  to  w. 
The  blade,  when  in  this  latter  position,  will  measure  18  inches.  The 
tongue  will  meet  the  edge  of  the  timber  at  m,  and  the  distance  from 
m  on  tongue  to  12  on  blade  will  indicate  the  length  of  a  jack,  or,  in 
other  words,  will  show  the  length  each  jack  is  shortened  when  placed 


Miter  Bevel  for  Boards 


BeveTtocutthe  Boar 


Fig.  30.    Method  of  Finding  Bevels  for  All  Timbers  in  Roofs  of  Equal  Pitch. 

18  inches  between  centers  in  a  roof  having  a  pitch  of  9  inches  to  the 
foot  of  run. 

When  jacks  are  placed  between  hips  and  valleys  as  shown  at 
1,  2,  3,  4,  etc.,  in  Fig.  14,  a  better  method  of  treatment  is  shown  in 
Fig.  29,  where  the  slope  of  the  roof  is  projected  into  the  horizontal 
plane.  The  distance  from  the  plate  in  this  figure  to  the  ridge  m,  equals 
the  length  of  the  common  rafter  for  the  main  roof.  On  the  plate  ann 
is  made  equal  to  a  w  w  in  Fig.  14.  By  drawing  a  figure  like  this  to  a 
scale  of  one  inch  to  one  foot,  the  length  of  all  the  jacks  can  be  measured 


362 


THE  STEEL  SQUARE  21 

and  also  the  lengths  of  the  hip  and  the  two  valleys.  It  also  gives  the 
bevels  for  the  jacks,  as  well  as  the  bevel  to  fit  the  hip  and  valley  against 
the  ridge;  but  this  last  bevel  must  be  applied  to  the  hip  and  valley 
when  backed. 

It  has  been  shown  before,  that  the  figures  to  be  used  on  the 
square  for  this  bevel  when  the  timber  is  left  square  on  back  as  is  the 
custom    in    construction,    are    the 

length  of  a  foot  run  of  a  hip  or  val-  /<^^^^^\^>^^^®  ^^^  °^  "^^P 

ley,  which  is  17,  on  tongue,  and  the  y^        ^^^Vridqe  board 

length  of  a  hip  or  valley  that  will 
span  over  17  inches  run,  on  blade — 
the  blade  giving  the  bevel. 

^        °         "    .  Fig.  31.    Method  of  Finding  Bevel  5,  Pig. 

Fig.  30  contains  all  the  bevels  or       so,  for  Fitting  Hip  or  Valley  Against 
"  Ridge  when  not  Backed. 

cuts  that  have  been  treated  upon  so 

far,  and,  if  correctly  understood,  will  enable  any  one  to  frame  any 
roof  of  equal  pitch.  In  this  figure  it  is  shown  that  12  inches  run  and 
9  inches  rise  will  give  bevels  1  and  2,  which  are  the  plumb  and  heel 
cuts  of  rafters  of  a  roof  rising  9  inches  to  the  foot  of  run.  By  taking 
these  figures,  therefore,  on  the  square,  9  inches  on  the  tongue  and  12 
inches  on  the  blade,  marking  along  the  tongue  will  give  the  plumb  cut, 
and  marking  along  the  blade  will  give  the  heel  cut. 

Bevels  3  and  4  are  the  plumb  and  heel  cuts  for  the  hip,  and  are 
shown  to  have  the  length  of  the  seat  of  hip  for  one  foot  run,  which  is 
17  inches.  By  taking  17  inches,  therefore,  on  the  blade,  and  9  inches 
on  the  tongue,  marking  along  the  tongue  for  the  plumb  cut,  and  along 

Miter  cut  for  root  board 


Fig.  33.    Method  of  Finding  Back  Bevel  6,  Fig.  33.    Determining  Miter  Cut  for  Roof- 

Fig.  30,  for  Jack  Rafters,  and  Bevel  Board. 

7,  for  Roof-Board. 

the  blade  for  the  heel  cut,  the  plumb  and  heel  cuts  are  found.  Bevel 
5,  which  is  to  fit  the  hip  or  valley  against  the  ridge  when  not  backed, 
is  shown  from  o  w,  the  length  of  the  hip  for  one  foot  of  run,  which  is 
19|  inches,  and  from  o  s,  which  always  in  roofs  of  equal  pitch  will 
be  17  inches  and  equal  in  length  to  the  seat  of  a  hip  or  valley  for  one 
foot  of  run. 


363 


22 


THE  STEEL  SQUARE 


mres 


Laying  Out  Timbers  of  One-half  Gable  of  Ji-Pitch  Roof. 


These  figures,  therefore,  taken  on  the  square,  19|  on  the  blade, 
and  17  on  the  tongue,  will  give  the  bevel  by  marking  along  the  blade 
as  shown  in  Fig.  31,  where  the  square  is  shown  applied  to  the  hip 
timber  with  19  j  on  blade  and  17  on  tongue, 
the  blade  showing  the  cut. 

Bevels  6  and  7  in  Fig.  30  are  shown 
formed  of  the  length  of  the  rafter  for  one  foot 
of  run,  which  is  15  inches,  and  the  run  of  the 
rafter,  which  is  12  inches.    These 
applied    on    the 
square,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  32,  to  a 
jack  rafter  tim- 
ber; taking  15  on 
the  blade  and  12 
on    the    tongue, 
marking  along 
the  blade  will 

give  the  back  bevel  for  the  jack  rafters,  and  marking  along  the  tongue 
will  give  the  face  cut  of  roof -boards  to  fit  along  the  hip  or  valley. 

It  is  shown  in  Fig.  30,  a,lso,  that  by  taking  the  length  of  rafter 
15  inches  on  blade,  and  rise  of  roof  9  inches  on  tongue,  bevel  8  will 
give  the  miter  cut  for  the  roof-boards. 

In  Fig.  33  the  square  is  shown  applied  to  a  roof -board  with  15 
on  blade,  which  is  the  length  of  the  rafter  to  one  foot  of  run,  and 
with  9  on  tongue,  which  is  the  rise  of  the  roof  to  the  foot  run;  marking 
along  the  tongue  will  give  the  miter  for  the  boards. 

Other  uses  may  be  made  of  these 
figures,  as  shown  in  Fig.  34,  which 
is  one-half  of  a  gable  of  a  roof  ris- 
ing 9  inches  to  the  foot  run.  The 
squares  at  the  bottom  and  the  top 
will  give  the  plumb  and  heel  cuts  of 
the  common  rafter.  The  same 
figures  on  the  square  applied  to  the  studding,  marking  along  the 
tongue  for  the  cut,  will  give  the  bevel  to  fit  the  studding  against  the 
rafter;  and  by  marking  along  the  blade  we  obtain  the  cut  for  the 
Doards  that  run  across  the  gable.    By  taking  19j  on  blade,  which  is 


Fig.  35.    Finding  Backing  of  Hip  in 
Gable  Roof. 


364 


THE  STEEL  SQUARE 


23 


the  length  of  the  hip  for  one  foot  of  run,  and  taking  on  the  tongue  the 
rise  of  the  roof  to  the  foot  of  run,  which  is  9  inches,  and  applying 
these  as  shown  in  Fig.  35,  we  obtain  the  backing  of  the  hip  by 
marking  along  the  tongue  of  the  two  squares,  as  shown. 

It  will  be  observed  from  what  has  been  said,  that  in  roofs  of 
equal  pitch  the  figure  12  on  the  blade,  and  whatever  number  of  inches 
the  roof  rises  to  the  foot  run  on  the  tongue,  will  give  the  plumb  and 
heel  cuts  for  the  common  rafter;  and  that  by  taking  17  on  the  blade 
instead  of  12,  and  taking  on  the  tongue  the  figure  representing  the 
rise  of  the  roof  to  the  foot  run,  the  plumb  and  heel  cuts  are  found  for 
the  hips  and  valleys. 

By  taking  the  length  of  the  common  rafter  for  one  foot  of  run 
on  blade,  and  the  run  12  on  tongue,  marking  along  the  blade  will  give 


6         s 

Fig.  36.    Laying  Out  Timbers  of  Roof  with  Two  Unequal  Pitches. 


the  back  bevel  for  the  jack  to  fit  the  hip  or  valley,  and  marking  along 
the  tongue  will  give  the  bevel  to  cut  the  roof-boards  to  fit  the  line  of 
hip  or  valley  upon  the  roof. 

With  this  knowledge  of  what  figures  to  use,  and  why  they  are 
used,  it  will  be  an  easy  matter  for  anyone  to  lay  out  all  rafters  for 
equal-pitch  roofs. 

In  Fig.  36  is  shown  a  plan  of  a  roof  with  two  unequal  pitches. 
The  main  roof  is  shown  to  have  a  rise  of  12  inches  to  the  foot  run.  The 
front  wing  is  shown  to  have  a  run  of  6  feet  and  to  rise  12  feet;  it  has 
thus  a  pitch  of  24  inches  to  the  foot  run.  Therefore  12  on  blade  of  the 
square  and  12  on  tongue  will  give  the  plumb  and  heel  cuts  for  the 
main  roof,  and  by  stepping  12  times  along  the  rafter  timber  the  length 
of  the  rafter  is  found.    The  figures  on  the  square  to  find  the  heel  and 


365 


24 


THE  STEEL  SQUARE 


plumb  cuts  for  the  rafter  in  the  front  wing,  will  be  12  run  and  24  rise, 
and  by  stepping  6  times  (the  number  of  feet  in  the  run  of  the  rafter), 
the  length  will  be  found  over  the  run  of  6  feet,  and  it  will  measure  13 
feet  6  inches. 

If,  in  place  of  stepping  along  the  timber,  the  diagonal  of  12  and 
24  is  multiplied  by  6,  the  number  of  feet  in  the  run, 
the  length  may  be  found  even  to  a  greater  exactitude. 

Many  carpenters  use  this  method  of  framing;  and 
to  those  who  have  confidence  in  their  ability  to  figure 
correctly,  it  is  a  saving  of  time,  and,  as  before  said, 
will  result  in  a  more  accurate  measurement;  but  the 
better  and  more  scientific  method  of  framing  is  to  work 
to  a  scale  of  one  inch,  as  has  already  been  explained. 

According  to  that  method,  the 
diagonal  of  a  foot  of  run,  and  the 
number  of  inches  to  the  foot  run  the 
roof  is  rising,  measured  to  a  scale, 
will  give  the  exact  length.  For 
example,  the  main  roof  in  Fig.  36  is 
rising  12  inches  to  a  foot  of  run.  The  diagonal  of  12  and  12  is  1 7 
inches,  which,  considered  as  a  scale  of  one  inch  to  a  foot,  will  give 

(^Ridge  in  exposition 


c 


I  I  I  I  I  I 


Fig.  37.    Finding  Length  of  Rafter  for 

Front  Wing  in  Roof  Sliown  in 

Fig.  36. 


Fig.  38.    Laying  Out  Timbers  of  Roof  Shown  in  Fig.  36,  by  Projecting  Slope  ol 
Roof  into  Horizontal  Plane. 

17  feet,  and  this  will  be  the  exact  length  of  the  rafter  for  a  roof  rising 
12  inches  to  the  foot  run  and  having  a  run  of  12  feet. 

The  length  of  the  rafter  for  the  front  wing,  which  has  a  run  oi  6 
feet  and  a  rise  of  12  feet,  may  be  obtained  by  placing  the  rule  as  shown 


366 


THE  STEEL  SQUARE 


25 


Elevation 


in  Fig.  37,  from  6  on  blade  to  12  on  tongue,  which  will  give  a  length  of 
13^  inches.  If  the  scale  be  considered  as  one  inch  to  a  foot,  this  will 
equal  13  feet  6  inches,  which  will  be  the  exact  length  of  a  common 
rafter  rising  24  inches  to  the  foot  run  and  having  a  run  of  6  feet. 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  plan  lines  of  the  valleys  in  this  figure 
in  respect  to  one  another  deviate  from  forming  a  right  angle.  In 
equal-pitch  roofs  the  plan  lines  are  always  at  right  angles  to  each  other, 
and  therefore  the  diagonal  of  12  and  12,  which  is  17  inches,  will  be 
the  relative  foot  run  of  valleys  and  hips  in  equal-pitch  roofs. 

In  Fig.  36  is  shown  how  to  find  the  figures  to  use  on  the  square 
for  valleys  and  hips  when  deviating 
from  the  right  angle.  A  line  is 
drawn  at  a  distance  of  12  inches 
from  the  plate  and  parallel  to  it, 
cutting  the  valley  in  m  as  shown. 
The  part  of  the  valley  from  m  to 
the  plate  will  measure  13^  inches, 
which  is  the  figure  that  is  to  be 
used  on  the  square  to  obtain  the 
length  and  cuts  of  the  valleys. 

It  will  be  observed  that  this 
equals  the  length  of  the  common 
rafter  as  found  by  the  square  and 
rule  in  Fig.  37.  In  that  figure  is 
shown  12  on  tongue  and  6  on  blade. 
The  12  here  represents  the  rise,  and 
the  6  the  run  of  the  front  roof.  If 
the  12  be  taken  to  represent  the 
run  of  the  main  roof,  and  the  6  to 
represent  the  run  of  the  front  roof,  then,  the  diagonal  13|  will  indi- 
cate the  length  of  the  seat  of  the  valley  for  12  feet  of  run,  and  there- 
fore for  one  foot  it  will  be  13^  inches.  Now,  by  taking  13^  on  the 
blade  for  run,  and  12  inches  on  the  tongue  for  rise,  and  stepping 
along  the  valley  rafter  timber  12  times,  the  length  of  the  valley 
will  be  found.  The  blade  will  give  the  heel  cut,  and  the  tongue  the 
plumb  cut. 

In  Fig.  38  is  shown  the  slope  of  the  roof  projected  into  the  hori- 
zontal plane.    By  drawing  a  figure  based  on  a  scale  of  one  inch  to  one 


Fig.  39.  Method  of  Finding  Length  and 
Cuts  of  Octagon  Hips  Intersect- 
ing a  Roof. 


367 


26 


THE   STEEL  SQUARE 


foot,  all  the  timbers  on  the  slope  of  the  roof  can  be  measured.  Bevel 
2,  shown  in  this  figure,  is  to  fit  the  valleys  against  the  ridge.  By 
drawing  a  line  from  w  square  to  the  seat  of  the  valley  to  m,  making 


-^  ,  Ridge  in  3econd  Po.5ition 


-  c  Cornice 


Fig.  40.    Showing  How  Cornice  Aflects  Valleys  and  Plates  in  Roof  with  Unequal  Pitches. 

w  2  equal  in  length  to  the  length  of  the  valley,  as  shown,  and  by  con- 
necting 2  and  m,  the  bevel  at  2  is  found,  which  will  fit  the  valleys 
against  the  ridge,  as  shown  at  3  and  3  in  Fig.  36. 

In  Fig.  39,  is  shown  how  to  find  the  length  and  cuts  of  octagon 
hips  intersecting  a  roof.  In  Fig.  36,  half  the  plan  of  the  octagon  is 
shown  to  be  inside  of  the  plate,  and  the  hips  o,  z,  o  intersect  the  slope 
of  the  roof,  In  Fig.  39,  the  lines  below  x  y  are  the  plan  lines ;  and  those 

above,  the  elevation.  From  z,  o. 
o,  in  the  plan,  draw  lines  to  x  y, 
as  shown  from  o  to  m  and  from  z 
to  m;  from  m  and  to,  draw  the  ele- 
vation lines  to  the  apex  o",  inter- 
secting the  line  of  the  roof  in  d" 
and  c".  From  d"  and  c",  draw 
the  lines  d"  v"  and  c"  a"  parallel 
io  X  y\  from  c" ,  drop  a  line  to  in- 
tersect the  plan  line  ao  in  c. 
Make  a  w  equal  in  length  to  a"  o" 
of  the  elevation,  and  connect  w  c; 

Fig.  41.    Showing  Relative  Position  of  ,i      c    n  i     •    i  , 

Plates  in  Roof  with  Two  un-  measure  trom  wion  the  full  height 

equal  Pitches.  " 

of  the  octagon  as  shown  from  x  y 
to  the  apex  o";  and  connect  c  n.    The  length  from  -w  to  c  is  that  of 


368 


THE  STEEL  SQUARE 


27 


Seat  of  Valley 


the  two  hips  shown  at  o  o  in  Fig.  36,  both  being  equal  hips  intersect- 
ing the  roof  at  an  equal  distance  from  the  plate.  The  bevel  atwis  the 
top  bevel,  and  the  bevel  at  c  will  fit  the  roof. 

Again,  drop  a  line  from  d"  to  intersect  the  plan  line  azind. 
Make  a  2  equal  to  v"  o"  in  the  elevation,  and  connect  2  d.    Measure 
from  2  to  6  the  full  height  of  the  tower  as  shown  from  xyio  the  apex 
o"  in  the  elevation,  and  connect  d  b. 
The   length   2  d   represents   the 
length   of    the  hip  z  shown   in 
Fig.  36;  the  bevel  at  2  is  that  of 
the  top;  and  the  bevel  atc^,  the 
one  that  will  fit  the  foot  of  the 
hip  to  the  intersecting  roof. 

When  a  cornice  of  any  con- 
siderable width  runs  around  a 
roof  of  this  kind,  it  affects  the 
plates  and  the  angle  of  the  val- 
leys as  shown  in  Fig.  40.  In 
this  figure  are  shown  the  same 
valleys  as  in  Fig.  36 ;  but,  owing 
to  the  width  of  the  cornice,  the 
foot  of  each  has  been  moved  the 
distance  a  b  along  the  plate  of  the 
main  roof.    Why  this  is  done  is 

shown  in  the  drawing  to  be  caused  by  the  necessity  for  the  valleys 
to  intersect  the  corners  c  c  of  the  cornice. 

The  plates  are  also  affected  as  shown  in  Fig.  41,  where  the  plate 
of  the  narrow  roof  is  shown  to  be  much  higher  than  the  plate  of  the 
main  roof. 

The  bevels  shown  at  3,  Fig.  40,  are  to  fit  the  valleys  against  the 
ridge. 

In  Fig.  42  is  shown  a  very  simple  method  of  finding  the  bevels  for 
purlins  in  equal-pitch  roofs.  Draw  the  plan  of  the  corner  as  shown, 
and  a  line  from  w  to  o;  measure  from  o  the  length  x  y,  representing 
the  common  rafter,  to  w;  from  w  draw  a  line  to  m;  the  bevel  shown 
at  2  will  fit  the  top  face  of  the  purlin.  Again,  from  o,  describe  an 
arc  to  cut  the  seat  of  the  valley,  and  continue  same  around  to  S;  con- 
nect *S  m;  the  bevel  at  3  will  be  the  side  bevel. 


Fig.  42.    Method  of  Finding  Bevels  for  Pur- 
lins in  Equal-Pitch  Roofs. 


369 


REVIEW  QUESTIONS. 


PRACTICAL  TEST  QUESTIONS. 

In  the  foregoing  sections  of  this  Cyclopedia 
ntimerous  illustrative  examples  are  worked  out  in 
detail  in  order  to  show  the  application  of  the  various 
methods  and  principles.  Accompanying  these  are 
examples  for  practice  which  wiU  aid  the  reader  in 
fixing  the  principles  in  mind. 

In  the  following  pages  are  given  a  large  number 
of  test  questions  and  problems  which  afford  a  valu- 
able means  of  testing  the  reader's  knowledge  of  the 
subjects  treated.  They  will  be  found  excellent  prac- 
tice for  those  preparing  for  College,  Civil  Service,  or 
Engineer's  License.  In  some  cases  numerical  answers 
are  given  as  a  further  aid  in  this  work. 


371 


REVIEW    QUESTIONS 

ON      THE      SUBJECT      OF 

CARPENTRY 

PART  I 


1.  Classify  trees  as  to  the  manner  of  growth  and  explain  how 
the  structure  affects  their  value  as  building  material. 

2.  Give  the  characteristics  of  the  four  parts  of  the  section  of 
a  conifer,  shown  in  Fig.  1. 

3.  What  effect  do  the  medullary  rays  have  on  the  lumber  of 
such  trees  as  the  maple  and  oak? 

4.  What  are  the  common  defects  of  timber? 

5.  How  can  warping  be  prevented? 

6.  Explain  the  term  "quarter  sawed." 

7.  Mention  the  best  framing  lumber.     What  qualities  recom- 
mend the  kind  mentioned? 

8.  White  pine,  red  cypress,  and  poplar  are  usually  considered 
the  best  lumbers  to  use  in  exposed  positions.     Why? 

9.  What  qualities  make  yellow  or  hard  pine  so  popular? 

10.  Classify  lumber  as  hard  wood  and  soft  wood.     State  the 
more  common  uses  of  each  kind. 

11.  Name  the  common  tools  used  in  woodworking. 

12.  How  does  the  action  of  the  rip  saw  differ  from  that  of  the 
cross-cut  saw? 

13.  Explain  the  uses  of  each  kind  of  plane. 

14.  What  operations  constitute  "laying  out"? 

15.  How  is  the  3 — 4 — 5  rule  used? 

16.  Give  directions  for  constructing  and  setting  batter-boards. 

17.  From  the  information  given  in  the  text,  discuss  the  avail- 
ability of  the  different  kinds  of  wood  to  be  used  for  shingles, 

18.  What  is  bird's-eye  maple f 


373 


CARPENTRY 

19.  Name  the  three  parts  of  a  steel  square. 

20.  What  precaution  should  be  taken  in  regard  to  ground 
water? 

21.  Distinguish  between  the  two  growths  of  timber  known  as 
endogenous  and  exogenous. 

22.  Explain  how  the  exogenous  trees  increase  in  height  and 
circumference. 

23.  Discuss  the  comparative  value  of  the  heartwood  and  sap- 
wood. 

24.  Draw  a  sketch  showing  the  general  structure  of  some  com- 
mon kind  of  wood. 

25.  What  is  the  usual  cause  of  dry  rot  and  how  may  this  be 
overcome? 


i   '  i 


374 


REVIEW    QUESTIONS 

ON     rrHX]     SXJBJHOT     OF 

CARPENTRY 

PART  II 


1.  Name  the  principal  parts  of  a  frame. 

2.  Illustrate  and  describe  a  splice  joint;  a  square  butt  joint; 
an  oblique  butt  joint. 

3.  Which  of  the  three  is  the  strongest? 

4.  Illustrate  three  different  methods  of  joining  joists  to 
girders. 

5.  Illustrate  and  describe  two  joints  particularly  adapted  for 
tension. 

6.  Upon  what  does  the  strength  of  the  joint  shown  in  Fig. 
61  depend? 

7.  What  is  a  spline;  and  how  is  it  used? 

8.  Under  what  circumstances  would  the  dovetail  key  illus- 
trated in  Fig.  84  be  used?  When  would  you  use  the  method  illus- 
trated in  Fig.  85? 

9.  Distinguish  between  a  balloon  and  a  braced  frame. 

10.  Give  the  special  advantages  of  the  balloon  frame  and  state 
why,  in  your  opinion,  it  has  become  so  popular. 

11.  What  method  would  you  use  to  make  a  sill  set  firmly  on  a 
foundation? 

12.  What  method  would  you  use  to  prevent  the  moisture  in 
foundation  from  causing  dry  rot? 

13.  Illustrate  as  many  different  kinds  of  corner  posts  as  you 
are  familiar  with. 

14.  What  advantages  has  the  ledger  board  over  a  girt?    Which 
is  preferable  in  balloon  framing? 


875 


CARPENTRY 

15.  Describe  and  illustrate  a  good  method  of  forming  the  cor- 
ners of  inside  rooms  so  that  there  will  be  a  nailing  for  the  lath. 

16.  What  precaution  should  be  taken  in  preparing  for  plaster 
around  the  chimney?     Illustrate  the  method  which  you  think  best. 

17.  Upon  what  principle  does  the  effect  of  diagonal  bridging 
depend? 

18.  Discuss  the  relative  value  of  the  use  of  joist  hangers  and 
the  use  of  gains  in  supporting  girders  and  joists.  Illustrate  the 
method  which  you  think  best. 

19.  Describe  a  good  method  of  construction  for  a  floor  open- 
ing in  front  of  a  fireplace. 

20.  Why  should  the  top  of  each  joist  be  cut  back  where  it 
enters  a  masonry  wall? 

21.  Why  are  joists  crowned? 

22.  Does  the  straightness  of  the  joist  have  anything  to  do  with 
the  manner  in  which  it  should  be  crowned? 

23.  What  method  would  you  use  in  supporting  corners  where 
it  is  impossible  to  use  a  post  or  wall  under  them?     Illustrate. 

24.  Where  is  the  shrinkage  of  the  lumber  used  in  a  building 
liable  to  cause  trouble?    How  can  this  be  avoided? 

25.  What  special  construction  is  desirable  in  the  case  of  a  par- 
tition where  sliding  doors  are  used? 


376 


REVIEW    QUESTIONS 

ON      THE      SrTBJHOT      OB" 

CARPENTRY 

PART  III 


1.  Illustrate  the  different  styles  of  roofs.     Name  each  style. 

2.  Which  style  of  roof  is  the  most  common  for  cottages? 

3.  What  are  the  component  parts  of  a  roof? 

4.  Discuss  the  ordinary  size  of  rafters.  What  should  be  the 
limit  of  length  for  each  size? 

5.  Name  the  different  kinds  of  rafters  and  draw  a  figure  of 
each  kind. 

6.  What  determines  the  pitch  of  the  roof;  and  what  does  one- 
quarter  pitch  mean? 

7.  Draw  a  plan  of  a  six-room  cottage  with  a  single  L  and  show 
how  you  would  put  the  roof  on  the  building. 

8.  Illustrate  how  you  would  obtain  the  length  of  the  valley 
rafters  in  this  case. 

9.  Draw  a  sketch  of  each  of  the  different  kinds  of  rafters  you 
would  use  and  illustrate  roughly  how  you  would  lay  the  square  on 
the  rafters  to  obtain  the  bevels. 

10.  What  is  a  double  gable  roof? 

11.  How  are  the  proportions  for  a  gambrel  roof  obtained? 

12.  Sketch  the  roof  framing  for  a  dormer  window. 

13.  Why  is  it  rarely  necessary  to  back  the  rafters  used  in  resi- 
dences and  cottages? 

14.  Draw  an  illustration  of  a  trussed  partition,  stating  which 
timbers  are  used  in  tension  and  which  are  used  in  compression. 

15.  What  is  a  bowled  floor;  and  where  are  these  floors  usually 
used? 


377 


CARPENTRY 

16.  How  far  may  a  balcony  safely  extend  without  bracing? 

17.  Illustrate  a  good  method  of  framing  the  overhanging  por- 
tion of  a  gallery.     Give  the  sizes  of  timber  you  would  use. 

18.  Define  a  king-post  truss. 

19.  Illustrate  and  show  which  members  are  in  tension. 

20.  Illustrate    the   queen-post   truss    and   show    the   tension 
members.  ^ 

21.  Name  the  different  kinds  of  trusses  usually  used. 

22.  In  building  a  cupola  or  a  tower,  what  special  stresses  must 
be  taken  into  consideration? 

23.  Draw  the  principal  members  of  a  dome  construction. 

24.  What  members  are  in  tension? 

25.  Illustrate  the  best  method  of  cradHng  for  a  groined  ceiling. 


378 


REVIEW    QUESTIONS 

ON     THE     STJBaBOT     OB" 

CARPENTRY 

PART  IV 


1.  Mention  the  various  kinds  of  lumber  used  in  your  neigh- 
borhood for  interior  finishing.     For  exterior  finishing. 

2.  What  is  the  advantage  of  using  sheathing  and  building 
paper? 

3.  Illustrate  the  method  which  you  consider  best  for  the  con- 
struction of  a  water  table  for  a  $3,000  residence. 

4.  Illustrate  and  discuss  the  relative  advantages  of  wood 
and  metal  gutters. 

5.  Illustrate  a  section  through  a  boxed  cornice. 

6.  What  is  the  special  advantage  of  the  concealed  gutter? 
Where  is  this  gutter  usually  used? 

7.  Draw  a  sketch  showing  the  framing  for  a  skylight. 

8.  Make  a  list  of  the  different  parts  of  a  window  frame. 

9.  Draw  a  cross  section  of  the  one  side  of  the  window  frame, 
putting  on  dimensions  which  are  common  for  frame  buildings  in 
your  vicinity. 

10.  Name  and  distinguish  between  the  diflPerent  kinds  of  win- 
dows. 

11.  What  is  a  transom?     A  transom  window? 

12.  Illustrate  the  horizontal  section  through  the  side  jamb  of 
an  interior  door  frame;  of  an  exterior  door  frame.  Name  the 
parts. 

13.  Name  the  parts  of  a  three-piece  base.  Give  the  dimen- 
sions usually  used. 

14.  Sketch  a  common  form  of  wainscoting. 


379 


CARPENTRY 

15.  Draw  a  careful  sketch  of  a  picture  molding;  a  plate  rail; 
a  window  sill;  a  mullion;  a  muntin. 

16.  Compare  the  relative  values  of  shingles  and  clapboards 
as  wall  covering. 

17.  What  is  siding?    When  and  how  is  it  used? 

18.  What  is  the  purpose  of  a  belt  course?     Illustrate  a  method 
of  construction. 

19.  Sketch  the  details  used  with  a  false  rafter  and  show  how 
the  gutter  is  constructed. 

20.  Illustrate  two  methods  of  finishing  the  ridge. 

21.  Name  the  parts  used  in  the  cornice  of  the  gable  and  give 
approximate  sizes  for  these  parts. 

22.  What  is  a  verge  board? 

23.  Illustrate  outside  architrave.     When  is  this  construction 
used? 

24.  Show  the  construction  used  where  siding  or  shingles  are 
covered  by  the  frieze  at  a  gable  end  and  on  a  side  wall. 

25.  What  means  are  employed  to  catch  the  water  which  may 
blow  between  the  joints  in  a  casement  window? 


380 


REVIE^^     QUESTIONS 

ONTHESTrBJEOTOir 

STAIR -BUILDING 

1.  Define  staircase  and  stairway, 

2.  What  is  meant  by  the  rise  and  run  of  a  stairway?     How 
measured  ? 

3.  Define  tread  and  riser. 

4.  How  do  treads  and  risers  compare  as  to  number?    Why? 

5.  What  is  a  string  or  string-board?     Describe  the  various 
kinds  of  strings. 

6.  How  are  treads  and  risers  fitted  together  and  fastened  in 
housed  strings? 

7.  Describe  the  construction  and  use  of  a  pitch-hoard. 

8.  How  are  the  relative  dimensions  of  treads  and  risers  deter- 
mined ? 

9.  Are  all  the  risers  in  a  flight  of  stairs  cut  of  uniform  height? 

10.  Describe  the  use  of  flyers,  winders,  and  dancing  stejps. 

11.  How  are  balusters  fastened  on  strings? 

12.  How  are  strings  fastened  to  newel-posts? 

13.  Describe  methods  of  constructing  hullnose  steps  and  risers 
for  same. 

14.  What  is  the  difference  between  a  quarter-space  landing 
and  a  half -space  landing? 

15.  Define  the  terms:  well-hole;  drum;  cylinder;  kerfing- 
geometrical  stairway;  carriage  timber;  wreath;  tangent;  crown 
tangent;  springing  of  a  well-hole;  ground-line;  swan-neck;  face- 
mould;    nosing;    return  nosing;    spandrel;    cove-moulding. 

IG.     Describe  the  use  of  the  face-mould. 

17.  When  the  face-mould  is  applied,  and  material  for  the 
wreath  cut  from  the  plank,  how  is  the  wreath-piece  given  its  final 
shape? 


381 


STAIR-BUILDING 

18.  What  is  the  use  of  tangents  in  handrailing?  What  do  the 
bevels  represent? 

19.  What  is  an  oblique  planed 

20.  Are  all  wreaths  assumed  to  be  resting  on  an  oblique  plane? 

21.  In  referring  to  an  oblique  plane,  what  do  you  understand 
by  the  expressions  inclined  in  one  direction  only  and  inclined  in  two 
directions'! 

22.  What  is  meant  when  tA^o  wreath  tangents  are  said  to  be 
equally  inclined^    What,  when  unequally  inclined^ 

23.  When  an  oblique  plane  is  inclined  in  one  direction  only, 
how  many  bevels  will  be  needed  to  twist  the  wreath? 

24.  When  the  plane  inclines  in  two  directions,  how  many  bevels 
are  required? 

25.  When  the  inclination  is  equal  in  two  directions,  how  many 
bevels  are  needed? 

26.  When  the  plane  is  unequally  inclined  in  two  directions, 
how  many  bevels  are  needed? 

27.  How  can  a  stairway  be  reinforced? 

28.  How  should  a  scroll  bracket  be  terminated  against  the 
riser? 

29.  When  a  plane  is  equally  inclined  in  two  directions,  how  are 
the  bevel  or  bevels  to  be  applied  to  twist  the  wreath  resting  upon  it 
in  its  ascent  around  the  well-hole? 

30.  What  is  the  difference  between  the  plan  tangents,  pitch-line 
of  tangents,  and  tangents  of  the  face-mouldl 

31.  Why  is  it  necessary  to  determine  with  exactness  the  angle 
between  the  tangents  on  the  face-mould  ? 

32.  What  is  the  width  of  the  face-mould  to  be,  when  laid  out  on 
the  minor  axis? 

33.  How  is  the  width  of  the  mould  at  the  ends  determined? 

34.  How  do  you  find  the  minor  axis  and  major  axis  of  the  uiould 
curves? 

35.  Show  how  to  find  the  thickness  of  the  plank  that  will  be 
required  for  the  wreath. 

36.  When  the  plan  tangents  are  at  a  right  angle  to  each  other, 
and  the  pitch  is  equal,  how  are  the  bevels  to  be  applied,  (1)  in  relation 
to  each  other;  (2)  in  relation  to  the  sides  of  the  wreath? 


882 


REVIBTT    QUESTIONS 


ON     THE      S  Cr  B  a  B  O  T      OF 


THE    STEEL    SQUARE 


1.  On  what  part  of  the  square  will  you  find  the  octagon  scale? 
Describe  its  use. 

2.  On  what  part  of  the  square  will  you  find  the  brace  rule? 
Describe  its  use. 

3.  On  what  part  of  the  square  would  you  look  for  the  board 
measure?    Describe  its  use. 

4.  What  is  meant  by  the  pitch  of  a  roof? 

5.  What  is  meant  by  a  bevel  in  roof  framing? 

6.  Draw  a  diagram  of  a  roof,  indicating  thereon  the  ridge, 
common  rafters,  jack  rafters,  hips,  valleys,  plate. 

7.  How  would  you  lay  out  a  pentagon  by  means  of  the  square? 
A  hexagon?     Illustrate  with  diagrams. 

8.  How,  with  a  square,  would  you  find  the  miter  of  an  equi- 
lateral triangle?     Of  a  hexagon?     Illustrate  with  diagrams. 

9.  What  are  meant  by  plumb  cut  and  heel  cut^    Draw  a 
diagram  to  illustrate. 

10.  Show  how  to  lay  out  the  heel  cut  of  a  common  rafter. 

11.  Draw  diagrams  illustrating  use  of  the  square  in  finding  the 
relative  length  of  run  for  rafters  and  hips.     Explain. 

12.  Show  how  to  apply  the  square  to  a  hip  or  valley  timber  to 
cut  the  bevel  that  will  fit  the  top  end  against  the  ridge. 

13.  Describe  the  application  of  the  square  in  finding  the 
relative  height  of  a  hip  or  valley  per  foot  of  run,  to  that  of  the  common 
rafter.    Draw  a  diagram. 

14.  Describe  a  method  of  finding  the  bevels  for  purlins  in 
equal-pitch  roofs. 

15.  Describe,  with  diagram,  the  use  of  the  square  in  cutting  the 
back  bevel  to  fit  a  jack  rafter  against  the  side  of  a  hip  or  valley. 


383 


INDEX 


385 


INDEX 


The  page  numbers  of  this  volume  will  be  found  at  the  bottom  of  the 
pages;  the  numbers  at  the  top  refer  only  to  the  section. 


Page 

Page 

A 

Bullnose  tread 

293 

Attic  partitions 

166 

Butt  joint 

58 

B 

C 

Balconies  and  galleries 

174 

Cap  and  sole 

100 

Balloon  frame 

82 

Carpenters'  tools 

42 

Base  or  skirting 

256 

nails 

49 

Battened  splice 

72 

planes 

46 

Battered  frames 

159 

saws 

42 

Belt  courses 

210 

screws 

50 

Bevels  to  square  the  wreaths 

324 

steel  square 

42 

Braced  frame 

82 

Carpentry 

11,  261 

Braces 

92 

exterior  and  interior  finish 

203 

Bridging 

100,  118 

floors 

105 

Broad-leaved  trees 

34 

framing 

57 

ash 

34 

roof 

121 

beech 

34 

special  framing 

159 

birch 

35 

timber  in  natural  state 

13 

butternut 

35 

tools  used  in 

42 

cherry 

35 

Casement  sash  and  frames 

237 

chestnut 

36 

Checks 

23 

elm 

36 

Church  spire 

190 

gum 

36 

Clapboards  for  wall 

covering 

206 

holly 

40 

Common  rafters 

145 

laurel 

39 

Conifers 

28 

locust 

40 

cedar 

28 

maple 

37 

cypress 

30 

oak 

37 

fir 

33 

osage  orange 

40 

hemlock. 

30 

poplar 

38 

pine 

31 

sycamore 

39 

redwood 

29 

walnut 

39 

spruce 

30 

Building,  laying  out 

51 

tamarack 

33 

ground  location 

51 

Corner  boards 

208 

staking  out 

52 

Corner  posts 

88 

Building  paper 

204 

Crowning 

118 

Note. — For  page  numbers  see  foot  of  pages. 


387 


2 

INDEX 

Page 

Page 

Cupola 

188 

Framing 

Curved  hip  rafters 

155 

special 

Curved  stair 

299 

timber  trusses 

178 

D 

towers  and  steeples 

187 

trussed  partitions 

162 

Dog-legged  stair 

290 

splices 

Domes 

191 

in  carpentry 

64 

Dormer  windows 

222 

in  joinery 

70 

Dovetailing 

78 

French  burl 

41 

Double  tenon  joint 

63 

Furring  walls 

98 

Dry  rot 

20 

G 

E 

Eaves,  finish  at 

211 

Gable  finish 

226 

boxed  cornice 

213 

Gained  joint 

61 

concealed  gutters 

215 

Gambrel  roof                                             124,  140 

false  rafters 

214 

finish 

225 

gutters 

211 

Geometrical  stairways  and  handrailing 

307 

bevels  to  square  the  wreaths 

324 

¥ 

curves  on  face-mold 

332 

Filleted  splice 

71 

projection 

308 

Finish 

203 

risers  around  well-hole 

338 

material  used  for 

203 

tangent  system 

308 

outside  roof  finish 

211 

wreaths 

307 

outside  wall  finish 

203 

Girders 

105 

trim 

256 

Girts 

89 

window  and  door  finish 

229 

Grain  of  wood 

17 

Fink  truss 

183 

Groimd  location 

51 

Floors 

105 

bridging 

118 

H 

crowning 

118 

Halved  joint 

63 

girders 

105 

Headers  and  trimmers 

113 

headers  and  trimmers 

113 

Heartshake 

19 

joist  connection 

113 

Heavy  beams  and  girders 

169 

joists 

110 

Hip  roof 

125 

porch  floors 

119 

Housed  strings,  definition  of 

269 

stairs 

120 

supports  and  partitions 

110 

I 

unsupported  corners 

120 

Inclined  and  bowled  floors 

165 

Framing 

57 

Intermediate  studding 

96 

joints 

J 

in  carpentry 

58 

in  joinery 

73 

Jack  rafters 

153 

special 

159 

Joist  connection 

113 

balconies  and  galleries 

174 

with  brick  wall 

117 

battered  frames 

159 

with  girders 

114 

heavy  beams  and  girders 

169 

with  sill 

113 

inclined  and  bowled 

165 

Joists 

110 

Note. — For  page  numbers  see  foot  of  pages. 


388 


Joints  in  carpentry 

butt 

double  tenon 

gained 

halved 

mortise-and-tenon 

tenon-and-tusk 
Joints  in  joinery 

dovetailing 

miters 

tenon 


K 


King-post  truss 
Knots 


Lean-to  roof 
Ledger  board 


M 


Mahogany 
Mansard  roof 
Miters 

Mortise-and-tenon  joint 
MuUions 

N  • 
Nailing  surfaces 
Nails 

cut  nails 

wire  nails 
Niches 
Notched  strings,  definition  of 


O 

Open-newel  stairs 

Open  strings,  definition  of 

Open  timber  trusses 

hammer  beam 

scissors 

P 
Partitions 

bridging 

cap  and  sole 

furring  walls 

special 
Pitch  of  roof 
Pitch  or  gable  roof 

Note. — For  page  numbers  see  foot  of  pages. 


INDEX 

Page 

58 

Pitch-board 

68 

Planes 

63 

jack 

61 

trying  and  smoothing 

63 

Plate 

60 

Platform  stairs 

62 

Porch  floors 

73 

78 
73 

Q 

Queen-post  truss 

75 

R 

Rabbeted  splice 

180 

Rafters 

common 

21 

curved  hip 

jack 

122 

valley  and  hip 

90 

Ridge  finish 

Rise  and  run,  definition  of 

40 

124,  141 

73 

Riser,  definition  of 

Roof 

attic  partitions 

60 

244 

frame 

pitch  of  roof 

rafters 

styles  of 

95 

Roof  frame 

49 

double  gable  root 

49 

gambrel  roof 

50 

interior  supports 

198 

layout  of  plan 

270 

mansard  roof 

ridge 

296 

Rough  strings,  definition  of 

269 

S 

183 
185 
184 

Satinwood 
Saws 

back  saw 

cross-cut  saw 

98 

hand  saw 

100 

keyhole  saw 

100 

rip  saw 

98 

Screws 

102 

Sheathing 

129 

Shingles 

123 

Shrinkage  and  settlement 

Page 

272 

46 

47 

47 

91 

290 

119 

182 

71 
127,  145 
145 
155 
153 
148 
216 
265 
265 
121 
156 
133 
129 
127,  145 
122 
133 
139 
140 
137 
133 
141 
136 
269 


41 

42 

46 

45 

45 

46 

43 

50 

203 

209 

104 


389 


4 

INDEX 

Page 

Page 

Siding 

207 

Timber  in  natural  state 

13 

Sill 

83 

characteristics  of 

Skylight  openings 

217 

cleavage 

42 

Slabs 

26 

flexibility 

42 

Splices  in  carpentry 

64 

hardness 

41 

for  bending 

68 

toughness 

42 

for  compression 

65 

classes  of  trees 

for  tension 

67 

conversion  of  timber  into  lumber     24 

Splices  in  joinery 

70 

defects  in  wood 

18 

battened 

72 

manner  of  growth 

14 

filleted 

71 

wood  structure 

16 

plain  butt 

70 

varieties  of  trees 

rabbeted 

71 

broad-leaved 

34 

with  spline 

70 

imported 

40 

tongued-and-grooved 

70 

needle-leaved 

28 

Stairbuilding 

263-339 

Tongued-and-grooved  splice 

70 

definitions  of  terms  used  in 

264 

Towers  and  steeples 

187 

geometrical  stairways 

307 

church  spire 

190 

handrailing 

307 

cupola 

188 

laying  out 

284 

domes 

191 

open-newel  stairs 

296 

niches 

198 

pitch-board 

272 

vaults  and  groins 

198 

setting  out  stairs 

270 

Transoms 

241 

stairs  with  curved  turns 

298 

Tread,  definition  of 

265 

types  of  stairs 

305 

Trees 

13 

well-hole 

280 

characteristics  of 

41 

Staircase  finish 

26i 

conversion  of  timber  into  lumber 

24 

Stairs 

129 

defects  in  wood 

18 

setting  out 

270 

checks 

23 

Staking  out 

52 

dry  rot 

20 

Starshake 

20 

heartshake 

19 

Staved  strings,  definition  of 

270 

knots 

21 

Steel  square 

341-369 

starshake 

20 

as  applied  in  roof  framing 

347 

warping 

22 

heel  cut  of  common  rafter 

355 

wet  rot 

21 

hips 

355 

windshake 

19 

String-board,  definition  of 

265 

manner  of  growth 

14 

Studding 

93 

varieties  of 

27 

Supports  and  partitions 

110 

broad-leaved 

34 

T 

imported 

40 

needle-leaved 

28 

Tenon-and-tusk  joint 

62 

wood  structure 

16 

Timber  characteristics 

41 

Trim 

256 

cleavage 

42 

base 

256 

flexibility 

42 

wainscoting 

257 

hardness 

41 

wood  ceiling  beams 

261 

toughness 

42 

wood  cornices 

260 

Note. — For  page  numbers  see  foot  of  pages. 


390 


Trussed  partitions 

Trusses 

details 
Finl£ 

king-post 
open  timber 
queen-post 


U 


Unsupported  corners 


Valley  and  hip  rafters 
Valley  roof 
Vaults  and  groins 
Verge  boards 

Wainscoting 
Wall 

balloon  frame 

braced  frame 

braces 

corner  posts 

girts 

intermediate  studding 

ledger  board 

nailing  surfaces 

partitions 

plate 


INDEX 

5 

Page 

Page 

162 

Wall 

178 

shrinkage  and  settlement 

104 

185 

sill 

83 

183 

studding 

93 

180 

Waney  lumber 

26 

183 

Warping 

22 

182 

Water  table 

204 

Well-hole 

280 

Wet  rot 

21 

120 

Window  and  door  finish 

229 

casement  sash  and  frames 

237 

door  frames 

248 

doors 

263 

148 

double-hung  sash 

234 

125 

mullions 

244 

198 

muntins 

237 

228 

pulley  stile 

231 

sill 

233 

transoms 

241 

257 

Windshake 

19 

82 

Wood,  defects  in 

IS 

82 

checks 

23 

82 

dry  rot 

20 

92 

heartshake 

19 

88 

knots 

21 

89 

starshake 

20 

96 

warping 

22 

90 

wet  rot 

21 

95 

windshake 

19 

98 

Wood  cornices 

260 

91 

Wreaths 

307 

Note. — For  page  numbers  see  foot  of  pages. 


DATE  DUE 

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